The earliest traces of civilization in the Indian subcontinent are to be found in places along, or close, to the Indus river. Excavations first conducted in 1921-22, in the ancient cities of Harappa and Mohenjodaro pointed to a highly complex civilization that first developed some 4,500-5,000 years ago, and subsequent archaeological and historical research has now furnished us with a more detailed picture of the Indus Valley Civilization and its inhabitants. Though the Indus Valley script remains undeciphered down to the present day, the numerous seals discovered during the excavations, as well as statuary ,pottery and skeletal remains, not to mention the ruins of numerous Indus Valley cities, have enabled scholars to construct a reasonably plausible account of the Indus Valley Civilization.
How big was the Indus civilisation?
The Indus Valley civilisation was four times bigger than Britain! There were more than 1,400 towns and cities. The biggest cities were Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. Each city had as many as 80,000 people.There were lots of smaller cities, such as Lothal, Dholavira, Kalibangan and Banawali. These names of these cities were given in later times. We do not know what the Indus people themselves called their cities.
Map of Indus Valley Civilization :
What were Indus cities like?
The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) was a Bronze Age civilization .An Indus city was made of mud-brick buildings. It had walls and roads.Indus Valley Civilization had elaborated town planning and it followed the Grid System. Water was very important to Indus people, so the builders started by digging wells, and laying drains. Main streets were up to 10 metres wide, wide enough for carts to pass. Side streets were narrow, more like alleys.Some cities had a citadel high on a mound. In the citadel were bigger buildings. Perhaps the city's rulers lived there. Most people lived and worked in the lower part of town.Most Indus people did not live in cities at all. Perhaps 9 out of 10 people were farmers and traders who lived in small villages.
All Indus Valley bricks were the same ratio of 1 : 2 : 4 but came in different sizes. A common size was 7 cm high x 14 cm wide x 28 cm long. Bricks were laid in rows or 'courses', end to end and crossways, using wet mud as cement to stick the bricks together. Indus Valley walls were so strong that many have stood for over 4,000 years!
Indus Valley people had clean water and excellent drains - better than any other ancient civilisation. Most city homes had a bathroom and toilet, connected to the city drains. Some people had private wells, for clean water. Others went to public wells, to fetch water in jars or animal- skin bags. Waste water flowed out of the house through pipes into the street-drains. Workers cleaned the drains and emptied the pits where sewage from toilets collected.
Great Bath - Mohanjedaro
An Indus city house :
An Indus Valley house was cool inside. Thick walls kept people cool in the heat of summer. Some houses had just one room. Big houses had lots of rooms arranged around a central courtyard. There were no windows onto the main street. This kept out dust and noise. Side windows let in light and air. From a model house found at Harappa, we can see that windows may have had wooden shutters with grilles (barred openings) to let in air and light. All that are left today are the ground floors of houses that once had two or three floors. Stairs led to the upper floors and roof. Walls were covered with mud plaster. It is not clear if people painted the walls.
Most people living in an Indus city had small homes which were also used as workshops. There was not much space to relax. For richer families, the courtyard was a pleasant, airy space, open to the sky. Children could play there, with toys and with pets such as monkeys, dogs and birds. People could tend plants in pots, and enjoy the air. In the courtyard, a rich family had its own private well, for water. The very rich lived in grand houses with more than one courtyard, and 30 to 40 rooms.
People of Indus valley Civilization :
Anthropological investigation and examination of the human remains shows that four racial types existed in this civilization. They were the proto - Australiod, Mediterranean, Alpine and the Mongoloid. Archaeological excavation reveal the existence of various racial types. Of all these the existence of the Dravidian race holds its relevance owing to its wide spread acceptance. Scholars are differed in their opinion about the race of Indus people. Some say it is of the Aryans while others opine that it is of the Dravidians. From this analysis on Indus Valley Civilization, scholars believes that it is the Dravidians who were the original inhabitants of Indus valley civilization.
Religion and Gods of Indus Valley People :
Unlike Mesopotamia or Egypt, there were no such buildings discovered so that we can conclude it might be a temple or involve any kind of public worship.Pictures on seals and other artefacts show what look like figures of gods. Various figures of the Mother Goddess were found. People probably believed this goddess gave health and fertility to people, animals and plants.Another seal picture shows a male god with horns and three faces. Around him are animals, including an elephant, tiger, rhino and buffalo. This god is a bit like the Hindu god Shiva (the God was given the name Pasupathimahadeva/Proto-Shiva by archaeologists).It is also important to note that Shiva is not one of the gods invoked in the Rig Veda and the Vedas condemned idolatry of all forms. The revered cow of the Hindus also does not appear on the seals. Evidences show that plants, trees and animals were probably important to Indus people. The pipal or fig tree is shown in Indus seals, and is still a sacred tree for many Hindus. Many seals reveal the symbol of swastika which is also found in Hinduism.People believed in magic and superstitions also and wore amulets for some protection. A dancing-girl of Mohenjodaro, a bronze figure, has also been found suggesting ritual dancing in the temples. Evidence shows that the Harappan people not only buried their dead but they also conducted cremations and kept the ashes in urns. The discovery of pottery items and ornaments in the burial grounds suggest that they might have believed in life after death.
It can be concluded that the present day Hinduism which is a fusion of ancient Vedic religion and forms of Animism-Little tradition probably has its roots in the Indus Valley civilisation.
Pasupati Mahdeva
Mother Goddess
Language in Indus Valley Civilization :
It is difficult to be sure about the language that the Harappan people spoke. The scholars have not been able to decipher the language of the Harappans. Sir John Marshall was the first to suggest that the people of the Indus Civilization spoke Dravidian language. Most scholars agreed with Marshall. On the other hand, Piero Meriggi suggested that they used Brahvi language. This is a dravidian language still used in Baluchistan.
It is believed that their writing was a pictographic script, or atleast seems to be. The script seems to have had about 400 basic signs with several variations. The sign probably stood forwards and for syllables. The direction of the writing was generally from right to left. Most of the inscriptions were found on seals. The seals were probably used in trade and also for official and administrative work. So the Harappans seem to have used writing mainly for these sorts of things. A lot of the inscribed material was found at different Harappan site.
Costumes :
The costumes of Indus valley civilization have been revealed from unearthed figurines. The dress on the clay figurine can be considered as the normal attire of the female of the time. The waist is bare and a very scanty skirt is worn. The skirt is held by a girdle that is made of beads or of bands of woven material secured by a pin or fastening of some kind. One figure wears a cloak which is wrapped around the upper part of the body. Head-dresses are used which are made of stiffened cotton cloth. A tight collar that gives an appearance of greater length to the neck is worn by a few of the figurines.
The male figures are generally seen to be nude. Probably a rob with or without embroidery was worn over the left shoulder and under the right arm. The figure of a man at Harappa might be wearing a close-clinging dhoti. Footwear as such was not found. Cotton as a fabric was used but no evidence was available as far as use of linen and wool are considered.
Ornaments used in Indus Valley Civilisation :
People seem to have been fond of jewellery and hair-dressing. Jewellery made of stones; gold and silver have been unearthed. Men had varied styles of hair-dressing. For instance, one wears his hair parted in the middle and the short locks at the back of the head are which are kept tidy by a woven fillet. Some show the hair woven into a bun after the hair being plaited. Some other figurines show the hair coiled in a ring on the top of the head and in similar rings concealing the ears. Beards were trimmed in various styles.
Metal ornaments were made of gold, electrum, silver, copper and bronze. Stones like lapis lazuli, turquoise, jadeite, carnelian, agate, onyx, Amazon stone, heliotrope, plasma, tachylite, chalcedony, nepheline-sodalite, shell, pottery, faience, vitreous paste; quartz, serpentine and haematite were used. The ornaments used are girdles, necklace, bracelets, pectorals, beads, cones, ear rings, nose-rings, finger-rings, anklets, bangles and hair-pins.
Amusements in Indus Valley Civilization :
Toys were used by children for amusement. Men were indulged in gambling. This was the board game in which men were moved on the boards and dice was used. Games were also played with pebbles. Dancing was popular. Drum, tambourine, castanets are the musical instruments that have been found.Men of Indus Valley loved hunting expeditions. This is adequately exemplified by the figures of men hunting as well as figurines of animals like wild goat, antelope, tigers etc.
Condition of Women:
Condition of women was pretty good. They were entitled equal honour along with men in the society. The worship of mother goddess demonstrates that they were venerated in the form of mother.
Food:
Vegetarian and non-vegetarian items of provisions were eaten by the subjects of Indus Valley Civilization. Significant stuffs of food comprised wheat, barley, rice, milk, fish, beef, mutton etc., in addition to date, which was their preferred fruit.
Indus Valley Civilization - Economic Activities :
(a) Agriculture- The Harappans were agriculturalists. Their economy was entirely dominated by horticulture. The Indus River valley was quite fertile when the Harappans thrived there. Agriculture was their chief line of work. Main agricultural products comprised wheat, barely, rice, cotton, vegetables etc. There were vast storehouses to gather food grains etc. Sickles and other types of agricultural equipments have also been found.
(b) Domestication of Animals-This was another means of sustenance of the Indus Valley civilisation. The seals identified, depict that primary animals were cow, bulls, buffaloes, sheep, goat, camels etc.
(c) Hunting-Besides being a means of entertainment, hunting was also a means of sustenance. They merchandised the skins, hair and bones of different animals. Fishing was also admired.
(d) Weaving and Spinning-Various objects excavated, establish that weaving and spinning were admired among the community. Cotton as well as wool was used for designing clothes.
(e) Pottery-Indus Valley inhabitants were skilled to manufacture pottery of a very lofty standard and it is "the earliest example of its kind in the ancient world". It was constructed on a wheel. Numerous statuettes on the pots have been excavated. Domestic vessels like heaters, store-jars, offering stands etc., were manufactured. Glazing vessels of copper, bronze, silver and porcelain were also created.
(f) Metals and Minerals-Gold, silver, bronze and lead were utilised. Most of the pots unearthed were made from copper and bronze. The use of these metals itself establishes the economic conditions of the people. However, iron was possibly alien to them.
Indus Valley Civilization - Political Structure :
After studying the different artefacts, the plan of the cities ,etc. many people proposed their own hypotheses.For example if we consider the cities they were amazingly well planned with broad main streets and good secondary streets. Each city was laid out on a grid plan with a high citadel and a lower city of domestic dwellings. Urban planning is evident in the neat arrangement of major buildings contained in the citadel, including the placement of a large granary and water tank or bath at right angles to one another. The lower city, which was tightly packed with residential units, was also constructed on a grid pattern consisting of a number of blocks separated by major cross streets. The cities had an elaborate public drainage system. Sanitation was provided through an extensive system of covered drains running through the length of the main streets . Based on these facts Gordon childe proposed his "Municipal administration hypothesis"(Each city is separately administered...cities are not under control of single administration) and A.L.Basham a great australian indologist proposed "Centralized Administration hypotheses"(All cities/towns under control of one administration -- because of similarities in the structure and pattern of the cities/settlements)Some historians believed that there was priestly rule .Historians who took into account the flourishing trade proposed Merchant rule hypotheses .
Indus Valley Civilization - Trade :
Indus Valley cities lived by trade. Farmers brought food into the cities. City workers made such things as pots, beads and cotton cloth. Traders brought the materials workers needed, and took away finished goods to trade in other cities.Trade goods included terracotta pots, beads, gold and silver, coloured gem stones such as turquoise and lapis lazuli, metals, flints (for making stone tools), seashells and pearls. Minerals came from Iran and Afghanistan. Lead and copper came from India. Jade came from China and cedar tree wood was floated down the rivers from Kashmir and the Himalayas.Indus Valley traders crossed mountains and forests. They followed rivers walking along the river bank. They also used boats. In a boat, it was easier and quicker going downstream (the same direction as the river was flowing). Some traders carried goods on their backs. Others drove wooden carts pulled by Bullocks. Archaeologists have found clay models of carts, which look like the bullock-carts still seen in India today.Traders probably journeyed in groups. At night they made camp, or slept in roadside hotels. Sometimes it was safer to travel in groups, for protection against robbers or hungry tigers.Some traders settled in other lands. Traders from another civilisation called Mesopotamia made their homes in Indus cities, and people from the Indus Valley went to live in cities in Mesopotamia.
Trade with Mesopotamia:
Sargon of Akkad (2334 to 2279 BC) was a king in Mesopotamia. This was one of the first ancient civilisations. We know Indus Valley traders went there, because Indus seals have been found in Mesopotamia. Sargon's scribes kept written records of ships from other lands. So we learn that the Mesopotamians bought gold, copper and jewellery from 'Meluhha'. Was Meluhha the Mesopotamian name for the Indus civilisation? Or was it the Indus Valley people's own name for their land?.Most Probably. To reach Mesopotamia, Indus ships sailed west. They probably kept close to land. Bits of old Indus pottery found on beaches in Oman, in the Gulf, came from storage jars left behind by traders.
Impact of Indus Art on Indian Art and Craft :
Interestingly, Indus art and craft has a deep effect on modern Indian art and crafts as well. In modern India the use of Collerium and other toiletry items are seen that were also prevalent in the Indus civilisation. The ability to create powerful symbols was something that could only be done by using special technologies and specific raw materials that were not easily accessible to the common people. The new elites and powerful merchants of the state controlled the crafts that became very significant in strengthening social and ritual status. From one generation to the next, through network of kins, the awareness of definite craft technologies were passed on. Faience working and seal carving are the crafts which were indisputably associated with the growth and integration of new social groups which used distinct types of artifacts to demarcate themselves and their ideologies, customs and tradition. There is a very preliminary but stimulating pattern in the predominant location of craft production on the southern half of the city mounds. Else the northern halves of mounds tend to have either private habitations or public buildings. While the Harappan culture has revealed excellence in sculpture and crafts, there are very few remains of paintings. Patterns on pottery are considered as rare exceptions. The pots had beautiful forms finished with a reddish glaze which were decorated with a diversity of geometric designs done in black.
It is said that the artists of the Indus Valley had a great feel for natural forms and could depict them with marvelous skill. It can well be understood from the power and energy of the bulls and the fierceness of the tigers on the seals. They could model or carve with enormous sensitivity. In the art of Indus Valley the appearance of yogic postures is very fascinating, and also the association of humans with trees. These are motifs which have evolved through centuries enriching the language of Indian art. Thus, Indus art and craft, display some of the most interesting characteristics of rich artistic heritage that existed ages back. These also have an influence on the modern art and craft. The excavated bits and pieces are a source of wide ranging information about their handicrafts, which is really attractive. Indus art and crafts speak a great deal about the civilisation that vanished without a trace.
Decline of the Indus Valley Civilization:
By about 1700 B.C., the Harappan culture was on the verge of decline. The causes of its decline are not certain. The physical existence of the civilization may have ended due to various factors.
(a) Ecological changes - might have led to the decline of land and agriculture, thereby enforcing the need to evacuate to other area might have been the reason for the disintegration of the Indus valley. Shifts in the monsoon pattern and changes in temperature led to the area become even more arid. The decline in monsoon rains led to weakened river dynamics, and played a critical role both in the development and the collapse of the Harappan culture which was dependent on river floods to fuel their agricultural surplus.
(b) Increase in population, excessive deforestation, decline in agriculture etc. might have created economic problems leading to the gradual decay of the culture. The marked decline in the quality of building and town planning indicates that the authorities were losing control.
(c) The changes in the river flow patterns and correspondent widespread flooding would have disrupted the agricultural base.
(d) The invasion of the Aryans is the other view that is said to be another reason which might have also led to the decline of the Indus valley.
