Key Terms (in Question Paper)

Citizen Centric Governance

2nd ARC Report

Neuroethics

Neuroscience is making discoveries about the brain at an incredible pace. For example, new drugs and treatments for mental and neurological disorders are being developed rapidly and imaging methods can see the living, working brain. Is neuroscience moving too fast? What can and should be done with this new knowledge about the brain? These are questions that concern workers in the field called Neuroethics.

Scientists, physicians, journalists, lawyers, politicians, philosophers, clergymen and teachers are people interested in neuroethics. But we should all be interested in neuroethics because this field will impact many aspects of our daily lives. Some neuroethical issues sound like science fiction, but other issues deal with technology and drugs that are currently available. There is no turning back. Neuroscientific discoveries will continue to be made and it is best to discuss these issues before they become reality.

Neuroethics - Some Questions

What if... machines could read your mind?

Existing brain imaging methods provide researchers and physicians with important tools to investigate the structure and function of the living brain. These powerful techniques help detect abnormalities in the brain and can assist in the diagnosis of neurological and mental disorders. Brain imaging is also used in experiments to study emotions, language and perception.

Could machines also read your thoughts, plans and memories? We currently have a machine called the polygraph (sometimes called a lie detector). The polygraph records involuntary physiological responses such as heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate and sweating to see if people are lying. However, the accuracy of the polygraph for detecting lies is controversial and some people can be trained to fool the machine. Could a machine that measures brain activity detect lying accurately?

Inventors of a "brain fingerprinting" machine think they have a device that can reveal a person's knowledge of events. Brain fingerprinting measures the electrical activity of the brain through electrodes attached to the scalp. Specific stimuli (words, pictures or sounds) are presented to a person. Some of the stimuli are important to an investigation, such as a crime scene. These important stimuli are thought to produce a special brain response that indicates that the person knows something about the stimulus. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), which measures brain blood flow, may also be able to detect areas of the brain that are active when a person lies. Two companies, No Lie MRI and Cephos Corp, are already marketing a service to detect lying.

If a device could accurately measure hidden knowledge and detect lies, how could and should it be used?

• Should people suspected of committing a crime be forced to have a brain scan? ("Did you steal the money?")
• Should suspected terrorists be brain scanned? ("Do you belong to a terrorist group?")
• Would employers be within their rights to have their employees undergo a brain scan? ("Can you be trusted with our company secrets?")
• Should people use brain scans on their spouses and children? ("Were you at the game last night?")
• If brain imaging could measure morality or intent, should it be used? ("Do you plan to rob the store?")
• If a brain scan could measure talents such as musical or mathematical ability, should it be used to direct people toward or away from certain jobs?

Memories are very fragile and can change over time. Would such a brain scan be able to detect "false memories" or memories that people believe to be true, but are not true? In specific experimental situations, some brain areas (the posterior medial temporal lobe) do respond differently to true memories and false memories.

What if... machines could predict a future neurological or mental disease?

Brain imaging can identify structural and functional differences in people with various neurological and mental disorders. For example, magnetic resonance imaging has shown that people with schizophrenia have larger than normal lateral ventricles, reduced hippocampus size, changes in the size of basal ganglia nuclei, and abnormalities in the prefrontal cortex. Currently, genetic testing can be used to screen for particular illnesses, such as Huntington's disease. Perhaps a brain scan will enable detection of other neurological and mental disorders.

• What if a machine or test could predict a disorder before any symptoms were present, perhaps even before a baby is born?
• Would you want to know if you were going to have a neurological or mental disorder?
• Should people be forced to get treatment to avoid problems of their condition?
• Should insurance companies require a brain scan before they issue a health policy? 

What if... drugs could alter your personality?

Drugs that alter mood are already available. Antidepressants and tranquilizers are used by millions of people every day: people with schizophrenia are treated with antipsychotics; children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are treated with stimulants. In the future, drugs might alter a specific personality characteristic. For example, perhaps a drug could be made to fight shyness.

• If a drug could reduce aggression, should it be given to people convicted of violent crimes?
• Could and should a pill be developed to eliminate specific phobias, such as the fear of flying?

What if... drugs, machines or genetic engineering could increase your memory and intelligence?

We now have drugs to slow memory problems associated with Alzheimer's disease. Many drug companies, including Memory Pharmaceuticals, a company set up by Nobel Prize winner Dr. Eric Kandel, are developing new chemicals to improve memory.

• Should drugs be developed to increase the intellectual abilities of people without any illness or disorder?
• Would it be a good idea to take a pill to improve your memory and attention or would there be significant side effects?
• If such a "smart pill" existed, who should get it?
• Do we already have drugs, such as caffeine and nicotine, to improve performance? If so, are these any different than a new smart pill?
• Would smart pills make people happier or more depressed?
• In 1999, researchers genetically engineered a mouse that outperforms regular mice on learning and memory tasks. Should this technology be used in humans to produce people with superior mental abilities? 

Technological advances already assist people with hearing and visual problems. For example, cochlear implants are used to improve hearing and the development of an artificial retina is progressing.

• Could and should we develop a machine-brain implant to boost intelligence?
• If these methods existed, who would get them? Some people believe that these methods would be used only by those rich enough to buy them.
• If everyone took a smart pill, would "normal" intelligence have to be redefined? Would this change put pressure on people to take the pill?
• Is taking a pill to increase intelligence a form of cheating? Is taking a pill no different than enrolling in a study class or getting special tutoring?
• Does it matter how intelligence is improved?

What if... memories could be erased?

Drugs to improve memory might sound like a good idea, but drugs to erase memories might also be useful. In fact, some drug companies are trying to develop chemicals to block the formation of memories. These drugs might be used to remove the memory of a traumatic event and help a victim recover. On the other hand, traumatic events can serve as a learning tool that emphasizes the danger of the event -- erasing memories may prevent a person from avoiding a traumatic situation in the future.

What if... the brain could be controlled from a distance?

Areas of the brain can be stimulated or suppressed by placing a transcranial magnetic stimulator (TMS) over the scalp. The TMS directs magnetic fields toward the brain and has been used to study movement, sensation and memory. Magnetic stimulation has also been used to treat depression and epilepsy.

• What if magnetic fields could be directed at someone from a distance?
• How would magnetic fields affect behavior and thought?
• Could this technology be used without a person's knowledge?
• Would this be an invasion of privacy?
• Could this technology be used as a weapon?

The Future

Although new discoveries will likely lead to machines and drugs that can enhance the brain, the question becomes what should be done with these new drugs and new technology. Will people lose their sense of self if they take one of these new drugs? Will they become less human if they are implanted with a computer chip to aid their memory? What are the long-term effects of enhancing intelligence?

The Golden Rule

The Golden Rule or Ethic of reciprocity is a maxim,ethical code or morality that essentially states either of the following:

• Positive form of Golden Rule: One should treat others as one would like others to treat oneself.
• Negative form of Golden Rule: One should not treat others in ways that one would not like to be treated (also known as the Silver Rule).

This concept describes a "reciprocal", or "two-way", relationship between one's self and others that involves both sides equally, and in a mutual fashion.

The Golden Rule or the ethic of reciprocity is found in the scriptures of nearly every religion. It is often regarded as the most concise and general principle of ethics. It is a condensation in one principle of all longer lists of ordinances

This concept can be explained from the perspective of psychology, philosophy, sociology and religion. Psychologically, it involves a person empathizing with others. Philosophically, it involves a person perceiving their neighbor as also "an I" or "self." Sociologically, this principle is applicable between individuals, between groups, and also between individuals and groups. (For example, a person living by this rule treats all people with consideration, not just members of his or her in-group). Religion is an integral part of the history of this concept.

As a concept of "the ethic of reciprocity," it has its roots in a wide range of world cultures, and is a standard way that different cultures use to resolve conflicts. It has a long history, and a great number of prominent religious figures and philosophers have restated its reciprocal, "two-way" nature in various ways.

Criticism : 

Immanuel Kant famously criticized the golden rule for not being sensitive to differences of situation, noting that a prisoner duly convicted of a crime could appeal to the golden rule while asking the judge to release him, pointing out that the judge would not want anyone else to send him to prison, so he should not do so to others.

Bernard Shaw comments about differing tastes which suggests that if your values are not shared with others, the way you want to be treated will not be the way they want to be treated.

Responses to Criticism

Marcus George Singer observed that there are two importantly different ways of looking at the golden rule: as requiring (1) that you perform specific actions that you want others to do to you or (2) that you guide your behavior in the same general ways that you want others to.Counter-examples to the golden rule typically are more forceful against the first than the second.

In his book on the golden rule, Jeffrey Wattles makes the similar observation that such objections typically arise while applying the golden rule in certain general ways (namely, ignoring differences in taste, in situation, and so forth). But if we apply the golden rule to our own method of using it, asking in effect if we would want other people to apply the golden rule in such ways, the answer would typically be no, since it is quite predictable that others' ignoring of such factors will lead to behavior which we object to. It follows that we should not do so ourselves—according to the golden rule. In this way, the golden rule may be self-correcting.We would often want other people to ignore any prejudice against our race or nationality when deciding how to act towards us, but would also want them to not ignore our differing preferences in food, desire for aggressiveness, and so on.

Left Wing Extremism in India (2)

Dynamics of Maoist insurgency  (source - MHA)

Many sections of society, especially the younger generation, have romantic illusions about the Maoists, arising out of an incomplete understanding of their ideology. The central theme of Maoist ideology is violence. The Maoist insurgency doctrine glorifies violence as the primary means to overwhelm the existing socio-economic and political structures. The Peoples Liberation Guerilla Army (PLGA), the armed wing of CPI (Maoist), has been created with this purpose in mind. In the first stage of the insurgency, the PLGA resorts to guerrilla warfare, which primarily aims at creating a vacuum at the grass-roots level of the existing governance structures. They achieve this by killing lower-level government officials, police-personnel of the local police stations, the workers of mainstream political parties and the peoples representatives of the Panchayati Raj system. After creating a vacuum, they coerce the local population to join the movement. A strident propaganda is also carried out against the purported and real inadequacies of the existing state structure.

In areas under Maoist domination, the absence of governance becomes a self- fulfilling prophecy since the delivery systems are extinguished through killings and intimidation. This is the first step in the strategy of the Maoists to seek to control the countryside. In the meanwhile, many Front Organisations are created to facilitate mass-mobilisation in semi-urban and urban areas through ostensibly democratic means. Most of the Front Organisations are led by well-educated intellectuals with firm belief in the Maoist insurgency doctrine. These ideologues function as masks to cover the violent nature of the CPI (Maoist) ideology. They form propaganda/disinformation machinery of the party.

They stridently take up issues like human rights violations by security forces etc. and often make fantastic claims in this regard which gets reported even by the mainstream media. The Front Organisations also skilfully use state structures and legal processes to further the Maoist agenda and weaken the enforcement regime. The important functions of these Organisations include raising funds for the insurgency, creating urban shelters for underground cadres, providing legal help to arrested cadres and mass- mobilisation by agitating over issues of relevance/ convenience. The Front Organisations aim to provide short-term democratic subterfuge to cover-up the totalitarian and oppressive nature of the Maoist ideology. Finally, the CPI (Maoist) also have a strategic game-plan to create a ‘United Front’ with all like-minded insurgent / terrorist outfits in India. It needs to be remembered that many of these outfits are supported by external forces inimical to India and the CPI (Maoist) consider such alliances as strategic assets.

In a nutshell, the CPI (Maoist), the main LWE outfit in India, aims to overthrow the existing democratic structure with violence as their primary weapon, and the Front Organisations and Strategic United Fronts as secondary weapons and plan to usher in so called ‘New Democratic Revolution’.

Government of India's Approach

The Government’s approach is to deal with Left Wing Extremism in a holistic manner, in the areas of security, development, ensuring rights of local communities, improvement in governance and public perception management. In dealing with this decades-old problem, it has been felt appropriate, after various high-level deliberations and interactions with the State Governments concerned, that an integrated approach aimed at the relatively more affected areas would deliver results. With this in view, a detailed analysis of the spread and trends in respect of Left Wing Extremist violence has been made and 106 most affected districts in nine States have been taken up for special attention with regard to planning, implementation and monitoring various schemes. However, 'Police' and 'Public Order' being State subjects, action on maintenance of law and order lies primarily in the domain of the State Governments. The Central Government closely monitors the situation and supplements and coordinates their efforts in several ways. These include providing Central Armed Police Forces (CAPFs) and Commando Battalions for Resolute Action (CoBRA); sanction of India Reserve (IR) battalions, setting up of Counter Insurgency and Anti Terrorism (CIAT) schools; modernisation and upgradation of the State Police and their Intelligence apparatus under the Scheme for Modernization of State Police Forces (MPF scheme); re-imbursement of security related expenditure under the Security Related Expenditure (SRE) Scheme; filling up critical infrastructure gaps under the Scheme for Special Infrastructure in Left Wing Extremism affected States; providing helicopters for anti-naxal operations, assistance in training of State Police through the Ministry of Defence, the Central Police Organisations and the Bureau of Police Research and Development; sharing of Intelligence; facilitating inter-State coordination; assistance in community policing and civic action programmes etc. The underlying philosophy is to enhance the capacity of State Governments to tackle the Maoist menace in a concerted manner. The Division also monitors the implementation of Integrated Action Plan for LWE Districts and various other development and infrastructure initiatives of the Government of India. 

Naxal Management Division

This Division was created w.e.f. October 19, 2006 in the Ministry to effectively address the LWE problem in a holistic manner. The Division monitors the LWE situation and counter-measures being taken by the affected States. The Division coordinates the implementation of various development schemes of the Ministries/Departments of Govt. of India in LWE affected States.

Role and Functions of the Division

• Provide assistance to State Governments for creation of operational infrastructure and logistics required to combat LWE.
• Deployment of CAPFs in LWE affected States.
• Review the security situation in the LWE affected States and Issue advisories and messages to the State Governments concerned.
• Reimburse security related expenditure incurred by the LWE affected States on Anti-naxal operations under the Security Related Expenditure (SRE) scheme.
• Provide assistance to the State Governments to fill up critical infrastructure gaps under the Scheme for Special Infrastructure (SIS) in Left Wing Extremism affected States.
• Provide assistance to the State Governments for construction/ strengthening of fortified police stations under the Scheme for Construction/ Strengthening of 400 Fortified Police Stations in LWE affected districts.
• Coordinate implementation of various development schemes, flagship programmes and distribution of titles under the Scheduled Tribes and other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006, in LWE affected States.
• Coordinate implementation of LWE related Schemes of other Central Ministries, especially the Integrated Action Plan for 82 Districts and Road Requirement Plan for 34 Districts.
• Media and public perception management.
  

Review and Monitoring Mechanisms 

A number of review and monitoring mechanisms have been established by the Government of India in this regard. They include:

• A Standing Committee of the Chief Ministers of States concerned under the chairmanship of the Union Home Minister, to work out a coordinated policy and specific measures to deal with the Left Wing Extremism problem on the political, security and development fronts.
• Review Group (earlier called the Task Force) under the Cabinet Secretary to review coordinated efforts across a range of development and security measures.
• A Coordination Centre chaired by the Union Home Secretary to review and coordinate the efforts of the State Governments, where the State Governments are represented by the Chief Secretaries and the Directors General of Police.
• A Task Force under the Special Secretary (Internal Security), Ministry of Home Affairs, with senior officers from the Intelligence agencies, the Central Armed Police Forces and the State Police Forces, to coordinate inter-state issues.
• An Empowered Group of Officers, headed by the Member-Secretary Planning Commission, with officers from the development Ministries and the Planning Commission, to oversee effective implementation of development schemes in Left Wing Extremism affected States.

New Initiatives

>A Unified Command has been set up in the States of Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and Odisha, which are the most affected States. Besides, West Bengal Government has also set up Unified Command. The Unified Command will have officers from the security establishment, besides civilian officers representing the civil administration and it will carry out carefully planned anti-LWE measures. 

>The Central Government approved a new scheme to assist the State Governments for construction/strengthening of 400 fortified police stations @ Rs. 2 crore each in Left Wing Extremism affected districts on 80:20 basis.

>An Empowered Group of Officers was set up at the level of the Central Government to over-ride or modify existing instructions on implementation of various development programmes and flagship schemes, having regard to the local needs and conditions in Left Wing Extremism affected areas for accelerated development.

>The Left Wing Extremism affected States have been asked to effectively implement the provisions of the Panchayats (Extension to the Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996 (PESA) on priority, which categorically assigns rights over minor forest produce to the Gram Sabhas.

Important Schemes for LWE affect areas 

Security Related Expenditure (SRE) Scheme : Under the Security Related Expenditure (SRE) scheme, funds are provided for meeting the recurring expenditure relating to insurance, training and operational needs of the security forces, rehabilitation of Left Wing Extremist cadres who surrender in accordance with the surrender and rehabilitation policy of the State Government concerned, community policing, security related infrastructure for village defence committees and publicity material.

Special Infrastructure Scheme (SIS) : The Scheme for Special Infrastructure in Leftwing Extremism affected States was approved in the Eleventh Plan, with an allocation of Rs. 500 crore, to cater to critical infrastructure gaps, which cannot be covered under the existing schemes. These relate to requirements of mobility for the police / security forces by upgrading existing roads / tracks in inaccessible areas, providing secure camping grounds and helipads at strategic locations in remote and interior areas, measures to enhance security in respect of police stations / outposts located in vulnerable areas etc.

Central Scheme for assistance to civilian victims/family of victims of Terrorist, Communal and Naxal violence : The broad aim of the Scheme is to assist families of victims of Terrorist, Communal and Naxal violence. An amount of Rs. 3 lakh is given to the affected family under the scheme. The assistance given to those who are adversely affected by naxal violence under this scheme is in addition to the ex-gratia payment of Rs. 1 lakh paid under the Security Related Expenditure (SRE) scheme.

Integrated Action Plan : The Planning Commission is implementing the Integrated Action Plan (IAP) for 82 Selected Tribal and Backward Districts for accelerated development. The aim of this initiative is to provide public infrastructure and services in 82 affected / contiguous Districts. Originally, a sum of Rs. 25 crores and Rs. 30 crores was released to 60 Districts during the financial years 2010-11 and 2011-12 respectively. This Scheme has now been extended to 22 more Districts, taking the total coverage to 82 Districts. The nature of major works/projects taken up by the districts under the IAP include construction of School Buildings / School Furniture, Anganwadi Centres, Drinking Water Facilities, Rural Roads, Panchayats Bhawan / Community Halls, Godowns / PDS shops, livelihood activities, skill development/ trainings, Minor Irrigation Works, Electric Lighting, Health Centres/Facilities, Ashram Schools, construction of Toilets, construction of multi-purpose chabutra, construction of passenger waiting hall, special coaching classes for students, construction of ANM Centres, development of play grounds etc. Out of 100133 projects taken up by the states under the IAP, 69056 projects have been completed till 8.1.2013.

Road Requirement Plan for LWE areas : The Road Requirement Plan (RRP) Phase-I was approved in February, 2009 for improvement of road connectivity in 34 extremely LWE affected districts in 8 States viz. Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa and Uttar Pradesh. The RRP-I envisages development of 1126 kms of National Highways and 4351 kms of State Roads (total 5477 kms), at a cost of Rs. 7300 crore. A length of 1891 kms has been built at an expenditure of Rs 2346 crores (as on 31.10.2012). The stretches for Phase-II of the Road Requirement Plan have been finalised by the Ministry of Home Affairs, based on the priority indicated by the State Governments and is under consideration with the Ministry of Road Transport & Highways.

Scheme of Fortified Police Stations : The Ministry has sanctioned 400 police stations in 9 LWE affected States at a unit cost Rs. 2 crores under this scheme.

Civic Action Programme : Under this scheme financial grants are sanctioned to CAPFs to undertake civic action in the affected states. This is a successful scheme which aims to build bridges between the local population and the security forces.

Conclusion

It is the belief of the Government of India that through a holistic approach focussing on development and security related interventions, the LWE problem can be successfully tackled. However, it is clear that the Maoists do not want root causes like underdevelopment to be addressed in a meaningful manner since they resort to targeting school buildings, roads, railways, bridges, health infrastructure, communication facilities etc in a major way. They wish to keep the population in their areas of influence marginalized to perpetuate their outdated ideology. Consequently, the process of development has been set back by decades in many parts of the country under LWE influence. This needs to be recognised by the civil society and the media to build pressure on the Maoists to eschew violence, join the mainstream and recognise the fact that the socio-economic and political dynamics and aspirations of 21st Century India are far removed from the Maoist world-view. Further, an ideology based on violence and annihilation is doomed to fail in a democracy which offers legitimate forums of grievance redressal.

Left Wing Extremism in India (1)

A Brief history

In order to understand left wing extremism in India, we need to look at the evolution of communism in India. Even before independence, a section of leaders argued that communism and socialism are ideally suited for a society like ours, which is divided along religion, caste, and ethnic lines. They argued that it was the only way to emancipate the vast number of poor people in India and create a classless and just society. This led to the creation of the Communist Party of India or CPI.

Formed on 26th December 1925, the Communist Party of India is one of the oldest political parties in the country. Before independence, because of a ban on all communist activities by British authorities, the communists were not able to build a strong nationwide organization. However, two campaigns led by communists immediately before and after independence is worth noting. One was the “Tebhaga movement”, led by peasants’ front of CPI “Kisan Sabha” in 1946. It was fought to increase the crop share of peasants from half to two-thirds, thereby reducing the share of feudal landlord to one-third.

Another campaign was against the brutal repression of peasants by feudal landlords during the regime of Nizam in the Telangana region. Although these two movements were not very successful, they helped communists to gain a strong hold in social and economically backward areas.

After independence, the Communist Party of India has emerged as the largest opposition party at national level. The first major crisis in the communist family came during the Sino-Soviet split and the 1962 Sino-Indian war. A large group of pro-China communists backed Chinese version of the events and blamed India to be the aggressor. The pro-Chinese faction agreed with China that the Soviet Union was following “Revisionism” and “Socialist Imperialism” and “Sectarianism”. This led to a split in the communist party into CPI (pro-Soviet) and CPI(M) (pro-Chinese) branches. While the Communist parties were struggling on ideological issues, a young communist leader by the name of Charu Majumdar was busy preparing his own plans to usher a “revolution” in India.

Charu Majumdar (1918-1972), son of a freedom fighter, was born in Siliguri, Darjeeling Dist. He took part in the “Tebhaga movement”, which gave him experience in organizing armed rebellion. He was deeply influenced by Mao Zedong and wanted to emulate the Chinese revolution in India. During the years 1965-1967, he wrote a series of eight articles arguing that the situation in India was ripe for armed rebellion. His documents formed the basis for Naxalism and were called the “Historic eight documents”.He was opposed to CPI/CPI(M) line of working within the framework of Indian constitution. In order to understand why he was opposed to the Indian state, it is important to grasp his view of the Indian government. He argued that the Indian government was a semi-colonial, feudalistic and imperial entity that needed to be overthrown. In an article in 1965 he wrote-

"The government is failing to supply food to the people, so the people have become agitated. So it is in the interest of the reactionary bourgeoisie of India that India has attacked Pakistan. The US imperialist plan of the world war is also operating behind this war. By attacking Pakistan, the ruling class again wants to create a tide of bourgeois nationalism. But this time it is clear like daylight that India alone is the aggressor. So, as a result of the defeat of the Indian army, the anti-government struggle will fast crystallize among the masses. So Marxists want today that the aggressive Indian army should be defeated. This defeat will create new mass agitations. Not merely wishing that they should be defeated; Marxists at the same time should make efforts so that this defeat becomes imminent. In every province of India agitations should be created on the lines the mass agitation in Kashmir is progressing."

During the mid-1960s, he realized that the time was ripe to launch the revolution since the Government of India was struggling due to the 1962 and 1965 wars, and the bad economic situation in the country.

Naxalbari is a small village in the Darjeeling district of West Bengal. During the spring of 1967, the landless peasants, supported by hard line communists like Charu Majumdar and Kanu Sanyal etc. forcibly occupied the lands belonging to their “class enemies”. The clashes were brutal. The communist government in power at that time was embarrassed by the behavior of its own cadre and put down the uprising ruthlessly. The left government dismissed the uprising as “Left Adventurism”, whereas hardliners called the left government’s policy as a “betrayal of Marxist ideology”. Even though the “Naxalbari uprising” was a failure, it marked the beginning of violent left wing extremist movement in India, and the terms “Naxalism” and “Naxalite” were born.

In 1967, the All India Coordination Committee of Communist Revolutionaries (AICCCR - initially called AICCCR of CPI[M] but later changed to simply AICCCR) was formed by Charu Majumdar and Kanu Sanyal. On 22nd of April 1969 (coinciding with Lenin’s birthday), the Communist Party of India (Marxist-Leninist) was formed by AICCCR with Charu Majumdar as Secretary of the Central Organizing Committee. The AICCCR dissolved itself.

During 1969-72, fierce battles raged between CPI-ML and Government authorities resulting in large-scale violence and bloodshed. It went on until July 1972, when Calcutta police arrested Charu Majumdar. He died in Lal Bazar police station on July 28, 1972. His death was a body blow to the Naxalites across the country. With his death, the central authority of Naxalism collapsed. From then on Naxalite groups went through a series of splits and a few mergers. There were many instances of splinter groups targeting each other’s cadre. The center of gravity of Naxalism shifted from West Bengal to Bihar and Andhra Pradesh.

How ever, instead of looking at every single split and merger, we are going to concentrate on three “groups” and their splits/mergers. They can be loosely termed as “Charu Majumdar group”, “Maoist Communist Center” and “Peoples War Group”. Most of the Naxalite groups in India can be traced back to the first group.

The splits in Charu Majumdar group can be termed as natural because of the absolute tyrannical style followed by Charu Majumdar. He was not someone who would accommodate divergent viewpoints. He was fanatical about revolution and considered following mass line as dilution of ideology.

In Bihar, the left wing extremism is closely linked to caste differences, land related disputes and labor exploitation. Being an agrarian economy, the disputes regarding distribution of lands, minimum wages, working conditions, etc were contentious issues between largely upper caste landlords and landless lower caste poor people . Some of the landless poor drifted towards left wing extremism to fight against oppression. In the year 1969, the Maoist Communist Centre (MCC) was formed by Kanhai Chatterjee and Amulya Sen. Although they supported the Charu Majumdar led CPI (ML), they did not join it. This group mainly consisted of lower caste and landless people and was extremely savage in executing landlords. The landlords belonging to the upper/middle caste saw this group as a threat to their dominance and raised private militias. Gangs like Ranvir Sena ruthlessly massacred Naxalites and those who were suspected to be Naxalite sympathizers. Unlike CPI (ML) which went through a series of splits, MCC remained intact. It merged with the Revolutionary Communist Centre, India (Maoist) to form Maoist Communist Centre (India) or MCC (I) in 2003. Again in September 2004 MCC (I) merged with Communist Party of India (Marxist-Leninist) People’s War to form Communist Party of India (Maoist) or CPI (Maoist) and emerged as the most powerful Naxalite group in the country.

In 1968, Due to the differences with Charu Majumdar, the Andhra Pradesh revolutionaries led by T.Nagi Reddy, D.V. Rao and Pulla Reddy were booted out of AICCCR. The splits that plagued CPI (ML) did not spare the Andhra Group either. In 1971, Pulla Reddy separated from T.Nagi Reddy and D.V. Rao and formed his own party. Pulla Reddy later joined hands with Satyanarain Singh (CPI [ML] SNS group).

Meanwhile, after the death of T.Nagi Reddy, D.V. Rao became the leader of Andhra group. During the early 70’s most of the Naxalite activity was concentrated around Srikakulam district region. The government forces successfully neutralized their influence by killing the top leaders like Appalasuri, Adibhatla Kailasam, etc. One of the biggest advantages of Naxalites in Andhra Pradesh is their ability to gather support among teachers, writers and civil liberties groups. These groups have successfully provided the needed justification for violence perpetrated by Naxals by highlighting the failures of Government and pointing out the excesses of police forces. A large number of movies, sympathetic to the cause of Naxalites are produced in Andhra Pradesh even today. The basic theme of the movies is always the same. The feudal landlords and Government collude with each other and perpetrate atrocities against innocent people and the hero turns into a Naxalite to punish the bad guys. It is interesting to note that every single top hero in the last 25 years has acted in at least one such movie. In the late 70s, Kondapalli Seetharamayya successfully rebuilt the Naxal movement, which had lost its steam due to the police actions. At one time as many as 74 dalams or guerilla groups operated in the Naxal strongholds. From Srikakulam area, the Naxals successfully shifted their base to Telangana region, especially Adilabad, Karimnagar, Warangal, etc. Unlike the Charu Majumdar line, the Naxalites in Andhra Pradesh were not averse to the mass line. However, by early nineties the government had slowly regained an upper hand over the Naxals. In September 2004, it merged with MCC (I) to form CPI (Maoist).

Current Scenario

As we have seen in the above section, Left Wing extremism in India is not a recent phenomenon. However, certain trends in recent years indicate that the threat from these organizations can increase by orders of magnitude, if strong, swift action is not taken. Left Wing extremists are transforming from “menace” to “serious threat”.

• Two of the most powerful Left Wing organizations, CPML-PW and MCC-I have merged into single entity called CPI-Maoist .It is a significant event since these two groups are responsible for 90% of the Left Wing extremist violence in India.
• The situation in Nepal has serious security implications for India. The success of CPN (Maoists) will help the creation of compact revolutionary zone (CRZ) stretching from Nepal to Andhra Pradesh. This will allow easy movement of men and material through out the CRZ. It will also allow Maoists to increase their “zone” to neighboring areas of CRZ.
• Because of the lack of uniform policy against Maoists across the states, the Maoists are easily finding safe heavens in states, which are not ruthless against them. After the Andhra Pradesh government has lifted ban on Naxals and invited them for talks, Maoists have quietly gathered strength and later on rejected peace talks blaming government of being stubborn. The effects of this action will be felt not only in Andhra Pradesh but also in all other Naxal-infested states.
• Intelligence sources say that the sophistication of land mines and Improvised Explosive Devices used by Maoists is a result of training received from LTTE
• There are reports about links between Maoists and Pakistan’s Inter Services Intelligence (ISI). The Maoists vehemently deny it and call it a “Government ploy” to malign the Naxal movement.However, there can be no doubt that ISI would be more than willing to provide all kinds of “assistance” to bleed India from within. The ISI can also use Nepal Maoists to control Indian Maoists.
• From 55 Districts in nine states in October 2003, the Maoists have spread their influence to 170 districts in 15 states by February 2005.
• Around 1997 itself Naxalites were accumulating around Rs. 1000 million per year in Andhra Pradesh alone through extortions, kidnapping and loot. Similar amounts of money went to Left Wing extremists in Bihar as well.
• In an unprecedented act, on 11th February 2005, a group of around 200 Maoists, which include 50 women, have attacked a KSRP camp in a school at Venkatammanahalli in Pavagada taluk of Tumkur district in Karnataka. In the attack, six Karnataka State Reserve Police personnel and a civilian were killed and five others were injured.
• Silda camp attack -2010
• 2013 Naxal attack in Darbha valley

Red Corridor of India

The Boxer Rebellion

Beginning in 1898, groups of peasants in northern China began to band together into a secret society known as I-ho ch'üan ("Righteous and Harmonious Fists"), called the "Boxers" by Western press. Members of the secret society practiced boxing and calisthenic rituals (hence the nickname, the "Boxers") which they believed would make them impervious to bullets.

At first, the Boxers wanted to destroy the Ch'ing dynasty (which had ruled China for over 250 years) and wanted to rid China of all foreign influence (which they considered a threat to Chinese culture). When the Empress Dowager backed the Boxers, the Boxers turned solely to ridding China of foreigners.

By late 1899, bands of Boxers were massacring Christian missionaries and Chinese Christians. By May 1900, the Boxer Rebellion had come out of the countryside and was being waged in the capital of Peking (now Beijing). To help their fellow countrymen and to protect their interests in China, an international force of 2,100 American, British, Russian, French, Italian, and Japanese soldiers were sent to subdue the "rebellion."

On June 18, 1900, the Empress Dowager ordered all foreigners to be killed. Several foreign ministers and their families were killed before the international force could protect them. On August 14, 1900, the international force took Peking and subdued the rebellion.

The Boxer Rebellion weakened the Ch'ing dynasty's power and hastened the Republican Revolution of 1911 that overthrew the boy emperor and made China a republic.

Boxer Fighters

Troops of the Eight nations alliance in 1900.
 Left to right: Britain, United States, Australian, British India,
Germany, France, Austria-Hungary, Italy, Japan