Agro-Ecological Regions of India

 The concept of Agro-ecological region is a modification and improvement on agroclimatic regions.There is distinction between agro-ecological region and agro-climatic region.Agroclimatic region is a land unit in terms of major bioclimate and length of growing period and which is climatically suitable for certain range of crop cultivation.Agro-Ecological region is the land unit carved out of agro-climatic region when superimposed on landform and soil condition that acts as modifier of the length of growing period.Therefore,within an agro-climatic region there may be a few agro-ecological regions depending on soil condition.This approach has been used in delineating agro-ecological regions of India. In the demarcation of agro-ecological regions of India,the agro-climatic regions of India have been subdivided on the basis of soil type.In the meso regions thus obtained,the length of growing period has been superimposed. This method has resulted into 20 agro-ecological regions.

Agro-Ecological regions (list)
Agro - Ecological Zones in India
Agro-Ecological Zones in India 1

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Environmental Laws in India

Introduction 

In 1972,113 world governments assembled in Stockholm to participate in the UN conference on Human Environment. The Stockholm conference proclaimed that,"The protection and improvement of human environment is a major issue which affects the well being of people and economic development throughout the world and it is the duty of all government and people to exert common effort for the preservation and improvement of human environment, for the benefit of all people and their posterity". After the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held at Stockholm in 1972, where India was a participant, it was realized that that a framework of laws was necessary to deal with environmental hazards that was resulting from the process of development.

India was the first country to impose a constitutional obligation on the state and citizens to protect and improve the environment as one of the primary duties.

Environmental law is an important instrument of environmental management. The existing laws relating to the environment has developed through legislative and judicial initiative in India. For a long time the subject of environment was a part of various civil and criminal laws specifying rights of individuals, groups of people and the state over the nature i.e., land, water, air, plants, wild life, etc. The Constitution of India clearly states that it is the duty of the state to 'protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country'. The Constitution of India imposes a duty on every citizen 'to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers, and wildlife'. Both the Directive Principles of State Policy and Fundamental Rights refer to the environment. In 1976, the forty-second amendment to the Constitution introduced principles of environmental protection through Articles 48A and 51A (g). Article 48A, part of the Directive Principles of State Policy imposes obligation upon the State to protect and improve the environment. Article 51A (g) of the Constitution also imposes obligation upon the citizens to protect and improve the environment. Owing to the amendment, the subjects of “forests” and “protection of wild animals and birds” have been moved from the State List to the Concurrent List. These constitutional provisions have been endorsed by a number of Acts, Rules, and Notifications. After the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held at Stockholm in 1972, where India was a participant, it was realized that that a framework of laws was necessary to deal with environmental hazards that was resulting from the process of development. The first law on protection of environment in India was the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1974 and it was followed by other major enactments.

Constitutional Provisions 

The Constitution of India came into force on 26th January, 1950. Originally, the constitution contains no specific provisions for environmental protection. However, certain specific provision have been incorporated by the Constitution (Forty Second Amendment) Act, 1976 and subsequent amendments. Indian Constitution is one of the very few constitutions in t he world, which provides for specific provision for the protection and improvement of the Environment. 

The amendment provided for the following inclusions:

(1) Directive Principles-Article 48 A: By the Constitution (42nd Amendment) Act - "The State shall endeavor to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forest and wildlife of the country".
(2) Fundamental Duties -Article 51A(g): By Constitution (42nd Amendment) Act - "It shall be the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures".
Thus the Indian Constitution makes two fold provisions:

(a) On the one hand, it gives directive to the State for the protection and improvement of environment.
(b) On the other hand the citizens owe a constitutional duty to protect and improve natural environment. 

The Government of India to accelerate the pace for environment protection, further amended the constitutional text by making the following changes: 

(I) Seventh Schedule of the Constitution:

 In the Concurrent List, 42nd Amendment Inserted

(a) Entry 17-A, providing for forests.
(b) Entry 17-B, for the protection of wild animals and birds.
(c) Entry 20-A, providing for population control and family planning.

(II) Eleventh Schedule of the Constitution

This new schedule is added by the Constitution 73rd Amendment Act, 1992. This schedule has 8 entries (2, 3.6.7, 11, 12, 15 and 29) providing for environmental protection and conservation.

(III) Twelfth Schedule of the Constitution

The entry number 8 of this schedule added to the constitutional text by the 74th Amendment Act, 1992, provided for the Urban Local bodies, with the function of environment protection and promotion of ecological aspects to them.

Due to the above changes the division of legislative power between the Union and the States is spelt out in the following three of the 7th Schedule of the constitution.

List I (Union List) Entries 

52. Industries.
53. Regulation and development of oil fields and mineral oil/resources.
54. Regulation of mines and mineral development.
56. Regulation and development of inter -State rivers and river valleys.
57. Fishing and fisheries beyond territorial waters. 

List II (State List) Entries 

6. Public health and sanitation.
14. Agriculture .protection against past and prevention of plant diseases.
18. Land.colonisation .etc.
21. Fisheries.
23. Regulation of Mines and Mineral development subject to the provisions of
24. Industries 

List III (Common or Concurrent List) Entries

17- Forests.
17-B Protection and wild animals and birds.
20. Economic and social planning.
20-A Population control and family planning. 

The constitutional changes effected in the 7th Schedule by the 42nd Amendment Act, 1976 is a milestone steps, in the direction of the protection of environment. Because the subject of forests originally was in the State list as entry 19, this resulted into no uniform policy by the State so as to protect the forests. By placing the item 'forest' now in the concurrent list by the entry 17-A, along with the State, Parliament has acquired a law making power. 

Because of the above change, in order to have a uniform policy in the forest management the Government of India in the year 1980 set up the Ministry of Environment and Forests. By virtue of this change Parliament also enacted, the central legislation i.e. Forest Conservation Act, 1980, which was amended in 1988. The government also adopted the new National Forest Policy in 1988 with a twin object. One to protect the forests and another to consider the needs of the forest dwellers. 

Similarly the insertion of the entry 17-B in the concurrent list has empowered the Parliament to enact a law with a view to protection of wild animals and birds. Although we had a comprehensive legislation in the form of Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 the 42nd Amendment has considered the wildlife along with forests. India has also formulated National Action plan for the Protection of wild life. The new entry 20 A in the concurrent list embowers the Parliament to regulate the population explosion one, of the prime cause of the environmental pollution. By these changes, legally and constitutionally it has become possible to lake a uniform action in the matters of proper management of the environment.

  

Fundamental Rights 

The judiciary's dynamic interpretation of fundamental rights have regulated into the rights to healthy environment from the following Articles:
(a) Article 14: "State shall not deny to any person equality before the law or the equal protection of the laws within the territory of India".

(b)Article 15(2) prohibits discrimination on the ground of sex, race, religion, caste, place of birth etc. to make use of the public places the general public. The public places, which are part and parcel of the human environment should be made available to the public. The preamble to our constitution ensures socialistic pattern of the society and decent standard of life, which can be pollution free environment.
(c) Article 19 (6): State is empowered to make any law imposing in the interests of the general public, reasonable restrictions on the exercise of freedom to practice any profession, or to carry on any occupation, trade or business. Guaranteed by (1) (g).
(d) Article 21: "No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law".

(e) Article 24: “No child below the age of 14 years shall be employed to wok in any factory or mine or engaged in any other hazardous employment” this provisions is certainly in the interest of public health and part of the environment.  

The constitutional provisions are backed by a number of laws – acts, rules, and notifications 

Following is a list of the environmental legislations that have come into effect:

General

1986 - The Environment (Protection) Act authorizes the central government to protect and improve environmental quality, control and reduce pollution from all sources, and prohibit or restrict the setting and /or operation of any industrial facility on environmental grounds.

1986 - The Environment (Protection) Rules lay down procedures for setting standards of emission or discharge of environmental pollutants.

1989 - The objective of Hazardous Waste (Management and Handling) Rules is to control the generation, collection, treatment, import, storage, and handling of hazardous waste.

1989 - The Manufacture, Storage, and Import of Hazardous Rules define the terms used in this context, and sets up an authority to inspect, once a year, the industrial activity connected with hazardous chemicals and isolated storage facilities.

1989 - The Manufacture, Use, Import, Export, and Storage of hazardous Micro-organisms/ Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells Rules were introduced with a view to protect the environment, nature, and health, in connection with the application of gene technology and microorganisms.

1991 - The Public Liability Insurance Act and Rules and Amendment, 1992 was drawn up to provide for public liability insurance for the purpose of providing immediate relief to the persons affected by accident while handling any hazardous substance.

1995 - The National Environmental Tribunal Act has been created to award compensation for damages to persons, property, and the environment arising from any activity involving hazardous substances.

1997 - The National Environment Appellate Authority Act has been created to hear appeals with respect to restrictions of areas in which classes of industries etc. are carried out or prescribed subject to certain safeguards under the EPA.

1998 - The Biomedical waste (Management and Handling) Rules is a legal binding on the health care institutions to streamline the process of proper handling of hospital waste such as segregation, disposal, collection, and treatment.

1999 - The Environment (Siting for Industrial Projects) Rules, 1999 lay down detailed provisions relating to areas to be avoided for siting of industries, precautionary measures to be taken for site selecting as also the aspects of environmental protection which should have been incorporated during the implementation of the industrial development projects.

2000 - The Municipal Solid Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000 apply to every municipal authority responsible for the collection, segregation, storage, transportation, processing, and disposal of municipal solid wastes.

2000 - The Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules have been laid down for the regulation of production and consumption of ozone depleting substances.

2001 - The Batteries (Management and Handling) Rules, 2001 rules shall apply to every manufacturer, importer, re-conditioner, assembler, dealer, auctioneer, consumer, and bulk consumer involved in the manufacture, processing, sale, purchase, and use of batteries or components so as to regulate and ensure the environmentally safe disposal of used batteries.

2002 - The Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) (Amendment) Rules lay down such terms and conditions as are necessary to reduce noise pollution, permit use of loud speakers or public address systems during night hours (between 10:00 p.m. to 12:00 midnight) on or during any cultural or religious festive occasion

2002 - The Biological Diversity Act is an act to provide for the conservation of biological diversity, sustainable use of its components, and fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the use of biological resources and knowledge associated with it 

Forest and wildlife

1927 - The Indian Forest Act and Amendment, 1984, is one of the many surviving colonial statutes. It was enacted to 'consolidate the law related to forest, the transit of forest produce, and the duty leviable on timber and other forest produce’.

1972 - The Wildlife Protection Act, Rules 1973 and Amendment 1991 provides for the protection of birds and animals and for all matters that are connected to it whether it be their habitat or the waterhole or the forests that sustain them.

1980 - The Forest (Conservation) Act and Rules, 1981, provides for the protection of and the conservation of the forests. 

Water

1882 - The Easement Act allows private rights to use a resource that is, groundwater, by viewing it as an attachment to the land. It also states that all surface water belongs to the state and is a state property.

1897 - The Indian Fisheries Act establishes two sets of penal offences whereby the government can sue any person who uses dynamite or other explosive substance in any way (whether coastal or inland) with intent to catch or destroy any fish or poisonous fish in order to kill.

1956 - The River Boards Act enables the states to enroll the central government in setting up an Advisory River Board to resolve issues in inter-state cooperation.

1970 - The Merchant Shipping Act aims to deal with waste arising from ships along the coastal areas within a specified radius.

1974 - The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act establishes an institutional structure for preventing and abating water pollution. It establishes standards for water quality and effluent. Polluting industries must seek permission to discharge waste into effluent bodies.The CPCB (Central Pollution Control Board) was constituted under this act.

1977 - The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act provides for the levy and collection of cess or fees on water consuming industries and local authorities.

1978 - The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Rules contains the standard definitions and indicate the kind of and location of meters that every consumer of water is required to affix.

1991 - The Coastal Regulation Zone Notification puts regulations on various activities, including construction, are regulated. It gives some protection to the backwaters and estuaries.

Air

1948 – The Factories Act and Amendment in 1987 was the first to express concern for the working environment of the workers. The amendment of 1987 has sharpened its environmental focus and expanded its application to hazardous processes.

1981 - The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act provides for the control and abatement of air pollution. It entrusts the power of enforcing this act to the CPCB .

1982 - The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Rules defines the procedures of the meetings of the Boards and the powers entrusted to them.

1982 - The Atomic Energy Act deals with the radioactive waste.

1987 - The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Amendment Act empowers the central and state pollution control boards to meet with grave emergencies of air pollution.

1988 - The Motor Vehicles Act states that all hazardous waste is to be properly packaged, labeled, and transported.

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Origins of Us

Origins of Us is a documentary series in which Dr Alice Roberts reveals how the body tells the story of human evolution. She looks at how the way people think, look and behave is a result of a six-million-year journey that took man from forest-dwelling apes to the most successful species living on the planet.Origins of Us tells the story of our species, homosapiens. In every one of our bodies is the evidence of how we evolved away from our ape cousins to become the adaptable, successful species we are today.

Anatomist and physical anthropologist Dr Alice Roberts reveals the key adaptations in our body that has contributed to our extra-ordinary success. Far from being inevitable, the evolution of our species is a product of pure chance. And with each anatomical advantage comes a cost, which many of us are still paying today. Bad backs, painful childbirth, impacted wisdom teeth are all a by-product of our evolutionary success.

This is a journey through your own body, 6 million years and 300 000 generations of our family, from a tree dwelling ape in the forests of Africa, to you and the six billion other humans on Earth today.

Episodes

Bones 

Bones : In the first episode, Dr Alice Roberts looks at how our skeleton reveals our incredible evolutionary journey.

Guts

Guts : In this second episode Dr Alice Roberts charts how our ancestors’ hunt for food has driven the way we look and behave today – from the shape of our face, to the way we see and even the way we attract the opposite sex.

Brains 

Brains : In the final episode Dr Alice Roberts explores how our species, homo sapiens, developed our large brain; and asks why we are the only one of our kind left on the planet today?

Indian Constitution - The Basic Structure

 The Basic Structure doctrine is an Indian judicial principle that the Constitution of India has certain basic features that cannot be altered or destroyed through amendments by the parliament.

Introduction 

There has been a historical controversy as to whether an amendment of the constitution made in the manner provided for under Article 368 must have to conform to the requirements of Article 13 or in other  words,whether constitution amendment act would be void if it seeks to take away or is is inconsistent with a fundamental right enumerated in part III of the constitution.The question whether fundamental rights can be amended under article 368 came for consideration in the Supreme Court in Shankari Prasad case.In this case validity of constitution (1st amendment) act, 1951 which inserted inter alia , articles 31-A and 31-B of the constitution was challenged. The amendment was challenged on the ground that it abridges the rights conferred by part III and hence was void. The Supreme Court however rejected the above argument and held that  power to amend including the fundamental rights is contained in Article 368 and the same view was taken by court in Sajjan Singh case.In both cases, the power to amend the rights had been upheld on the basis of Article 368.

In 1967, in Golak Nath vs. The State of Punjab,the validity of 17th Amendment which inserted certain acts in Ninth Schedule was again challenged.A bench of eleven judges (such a large bench constituted for the first time) of the Supreme Court deliberated as to whether any part of the Fundamental Rights provisions of the constitution could be revoked or limited by amendment of the constitution. The Supreme Court ruled the parliament had no power to amend Part III of the constitution and overruled its earlier decision in Shankari Prasad and Sajjan Singh case.Chief Justice Subha Rao in effect ruled that Fundamental Rights cannot be abrogated even by an amendment of the Constitution because amendments are also laws within the meaning of Article 13.Therefore, amendments which "take away or abridge" the Fundamental Rights provisions cannot be passed.The shift in the Court's perception can be understood only in terms of the socio-political developments of the times.In order to remove difficulties created by the decision of SC in Golak Nath case parliament enacted the 24th Amendment act.  

Six years later in 1973, 25th Amendment act made by the parliament was challenged in the court along with the 24th and 29th Amendments.Thirteen judges of the Supreme Court, including then Chief Justice Sikri, heard arguments in Kesavananda Bharati vs The State of Kerala (1973) and thus considered the validity of the 24th, 25th and 29th amendments, and more basically the correctness of the decision in the Golak Nath case. This time, the court held, by the thinnest of margins of 7-6, that although no part of the constitution, including fundamental rights, was beyond the amending power of Parliament (thus overruling the 1967 case), the "basic structure of the Constitution could not be abrogated even by a constitutional amendment".The Supreme Court recognized Basic Structure concept for the first time in the historic Kesavananda Bharati case in 1973.

The basic structure doctrine was further clarified by Supreme Court in Minerva Mills v. Union of India (case citation: AIR 1980 SC 1789). The Constitution (Forty-Second Amendment) Act had been enacted by the 

government of Indira Gandhi in response to the Kesavananda judgment in an effort to reduce the power of the judicial review of constitutional amendments by the Supreme Court. In the Minerva Mills case, Nani Palkhivala successfully moved the Supreme Court to declare sections 4 & 55 of the 42nd amendment as unconstitutional.Chief Justice Yeshwant Vishnu Chandrachud explained in the Minerva Mills judgment that since the power of Parliament to amend the constitution was limited, as had been previously held through the basic structure doctrine in the Kesavananda case, the parliament could not by amending the constitution convert this limited power into an unlimited power (as it had purported to do by the 42nd amendment).In addition, the court also ruled that the parliament's "power to amend is not a power to destroy". Thus the parliament did not have the power emasculate the fundamental rights of individuals, such as the right to liberty and equality.

The Supreme Court has refused to foreclose its list of 'Basic Features'.From various decisions and judgements so far,the following list may be drawn up : 

1.Supremacy of constitution
2.Rule of Law
3.The Principle of separation of powers
4.Objectives specified in the preamble of constitution
5.Judicial Review
6.Federalism
7.Secularism (declared a basic feature in the S.R. Bommai Case)
8.The Sovereign,Democratic, Republican Structure
9.Freedom and Dignity of the individual
10.Unity and integrity of the nation
11.Principle of Equality
12.Social Justice
13.Free and fair elections
14.Independence of Judiciary
15.Effective access to Justice
16.Presumably, socialism as interpreted by the Supreme Court in the nationalization era is also a basic feature.  

What is the core concern of the doctrine of basic structure of the Constitution? What is its singular objective?

Since this doctrine emerged as an antidote to parliament’s unlimited amending power, we may crystallize the core concern of the basic structure doctrine by stating: 

The Parliament’s amending power under Article 368, in pursuance of Article 31B read with the Ninth Schedule of the constitution, granting that it has the power to amend every part of the Constitution, including Part III that incorporates fundamental rights, cannot be absolute, unlimited, uncontrolled or uncontrollable.

What are the rationale for reaching this principle?  

In the light of the ‘concerns’ reflected in the post-Kesavananda Bharati cases,19 at least the following four rationale may be culled out:

The first rationale of limiting the unlimited amending power of Parliament under the basic structure doctrine flows from the principle of separation of powers, invariably sanctified through the written Constitution. This principle gives effect to the strategy of checks and balances. It is a strategy to preserve liberty and protection against tyranny. In functional terms, it means that there is a diffusion of power by dispersing it amongst the three centres of decision-making,namely, legislature, executive, and judiciary. Each one of these is quite independent of the others in one’s own area demarcated by the Constitution. Under this separation of power principle, the review-role of the exercise of amending power by the legislature, usually propped up by the executive, is clearly entrusted to the judiciary. On this score,the principle of separation of powers is well entrenched and there does not seem to be any disagreement.

The second rationale of limited amending power is that under article 368 the power of amending the Constitution is not truly and essentially a ‘constituent power’ – the ‘plenary’ or ‘absolute’ power, which is
exercised to make or unmake a Constitution, a power that has “no limitations or constraints.” Such a power was vested, for instance,in the Constituent Assembly, which framed our Constitution in the first
instance.

The third rationale of limiting the amending power is that the very idea of ‘amendment’ carries its own rough and ready measure. Such a measure was deciphered by the Supreme Court in Waman Rao31 by
invoking the analogy of ‘permissibility of an amendment of a pleading’,that is, how far the amendment of a pleading is consistent with the original. In this respect, emphasized the apex court, you cannot by an
amendment transform the original into opposite of what it is.

The fourth rationale of the core concern of the basic structure doctrine is the ‘Judicial Review’, which is its integral or inseparable part. In this sense, without judicial review, the basic structure doctrine
is simply inoperable or non-functional. That is, by taking away the component of judicial review, we would be denying the very existence of the doctrine of basic structure, which is simply impermissible.

Principally, the basic structure doctrine is conceived in terms of certain basic principles or values underlying the basic document, namely,the Constitution.

What are these principles or values on the basis of which the structure of the Constitution itself has been raised? 

By implication, such principles or values may be termed as ‘preconstitutional’.

What are these values ?

The ‘pre-constitutional’ values are universally perceived in terms of certain ‘basic human rights’ that are considered essential for the very existence of a human being. These are assumed and assimilated as some “intrinsic” or “foundational” values, which exist as such in the scheme of nature. Such values are not “a gift from the State to its citizens,” but exist “independently of any constitution by reason of the fact that they are members of human race.” These are invariably crystallized in the Constitution in the form of fundamental rights, which “occupy a unique place in the lives of civilized societies.” This is the perspective with which the apex court has expounded the nature of fundamental rights contained in part III of our Constitution as the very basis of the basic structure principle. 

Criticism :

Presumably, socialism as interpreted by the Supreme Court in the nationalisation era is also a basic feature.If so, it may raise several questions for policy-planners now involved in disinvestment and privatisation, which the court alone can clarify.Judicial review and judicial independence are considered part of "basic features." When the court claims exclusive jurisdiction in deciding judicial appointments to superior courts, interpreting the written text that way, and limits power expressly given to the Executive by the Constitution, it is legitimate to ask whether we are heading for an arrangement contrary to the spirit of parliamentary democracy and concentration of unfettered power in one institution which, incidentally, is not an elected body.Can one proceed on the assumption that judges cannot go wrong and what they decide would always be in the best interests of the people? Or is it that people themselves do not know their interests and they need to be told by an expert body? These are discomforting questions that loom large in the whenever controversial decisions on popular issues are rendered by the court. 
 

South China Sea Dispute

What is the South China Sea Dispute ?

It is a dispute over territory and sovereignty over ocean areas and the Paracels and the Spratlys - two island chains claimed in whole or in part by a number of countries. Alongside the fully fledged islands, there are dozens of uninhabited rocky outcrops, atolls, sandbanks and reefs, such as the Scarborough Shoal.

Who claims what?

China claims by far the largest portion of territory - an area stretching hundreds of miles south and east from its most southerly province of Hainan. Beijing has said its right to the area come from 2,000 years of history where the Paracel and Spratly island chains were regarded as integral parts of the Chinese nation.

In 1947 China issued a map detailing its claims. It showed the two island groups falling entirely within its territory. Those claims are mirrored by Taiwan, because the island considers itself the Republic of China and has the same territorial claims.

Vietnam hotly disputes China's historical account, saying China never claimed sovereignty over the islands until the 1940s. Vietnam says both island chains are entirely within its territory. It says it has actively ruled over both the Paracels and the Spratlys since the 17th Century - and has the documents to prove it.

The other major claimant in the area is the Philippines, which invokes its geographical proximity to the Spratly Islands as the main basis of its claim for part of the grouping.

Both the Philippines and China lay claim to the Scarborough Shoal (known as Huangyan Island in China) - a little more than 100 miles (160km) from the Philippines and 500 miles from China.

Malaysia and Brunei also lay claim to territory in the South China Sea that they say falls within their economic exclusion zones, as defined by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea in 1982. Brunei does not claim any of the disputed islands, but Malaysia claims a small number of islands in the Spratlys.

How much trouble does the dispute cause?

The most serious trouble in recent decades has flared between Vietnam and China. The Chinese seized the Paracels from Vietnam in 1974, killing more than 70 Vietnamese troops. In 1988 the two sides clashed in the Spratlys, when Vietnam again came off worse, losing about 60 sailors.The Philippines has also been involved in a number of minor skirmishes with Chinese, Vietnamese and Malaysian forces.The most recent upsurge in tension has coincided with more muscular posturing from China. Beijing officials have issued a number of strongly worded statements, including warning their rivals to stop any mineral exploration in the area.The Philippines has accused China of building up its military presence in the Spratlys. The two countries have engaged in a maritime stand-off, accusing each other of intrusions in the Scarborough Shoal. Chinese and Philippine vessels refuse to leave the area, and tension has flared, leading to rhetoric and protests.Unverified claims that the Chinese navy deliberately sabotaged two Vietnamese exploration operations has led to large anti-China protests on the streets of Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City.Vietnam has held live-fire exercises off its coast - an action that was seen as a gross provocation by Beijing.

Is anyone trying to resolve the row?

Over the years, China has tended to favour arrangements negotiated behind closed doors with the individual leaders of other countries. But the other countries have pushed for international mediation.So in July 2010, when US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton became involved in the debate and called for a binding code of conduct, China was not pleased. The Chinese Foreign Ministry dismissed her suggestion as an attack on China.Agreements such as the UN's 1982 convention appeared to lay the framework for a solution. But in practice, the convention led to more overlapping claims, and did nothing to deter China and Vietnam in pressing their historical claims.Both the Philippines and Vietnam have made bilateral agreements with China, putting in place codes of conduct in the area. But the agreements have made little difference.
The regional grouping Asean - whose membership includes all of the main players in the dispute except China and Taiwan - concluded a code of conduct deal with China in 2002.Under the agreement, the countries agreed to "resolve their territorial and jurisdictional disputes by peaceful means, without resorting to the threat or use of force, through friendly consultations and negotiations".But recent events suggest that Vietnam and China at least have failed to stick to the spirit of that agreement. And Asean continues to discuss new ideas for resolving the dispute.

India and South China Sea

China’s hard line on the South China Sea(SCS) has affected India too. New Delhi was a bit taken aback after Beijing denounced plans by an Indian Company to develop oil fields in the region. The Chinese objection was to ONGC Videsh’s (OVL) venture for off-shore oil exploration in water’s belonging to Vietnam (not recognized by China), Beijing urged India to refrain from entering into deals with Vietnamese firms exploring oil and gas in the disputed SCS over which China enjoys ‘indisputable’ sovereignty.However, while China opposes India’s entry into the SCS, it insists on building strategic projects in Pakistan occupied Kashmir (POK) and on deploying troops there. There were recently unconfirmed reports of confrontation between the Chinese warship and INS Airavat in the international waters of SCS. India has responded to Chinese objections by stating that its cooperation with Vietnam is in accordance with international laws.

The afore-stated developments need to be seen in the context of India’s stated naval doctrine. The Indian Navy document (2007) “Freedom to use the Seas: India’s Maritime Military Strategy”, lays down clearly that India's area of interest which “extends from the north of the Arabian Sea to the South China Sea''. In the 2010 ARF meeting, India was among 12 (of 27 participating countries) that backed the United States’ multilateral approach, instead of China’s “bilateral approach” for resolution of the SCS disputes. During the 17th ARF meeting, India joined other countries to openly declare that the SCS should remain open for international navigation. 

India has a strong interest in keeping sea lanes open in the South China Sea . The SCS is not only a strategic maritime link between the Pacific and the Indian Oceans, but also a vital gateway for shipping in East Asia. Almost, 55% of India’s trade with the Asia Pacific transits through the SCS. Apart from helping secure energy supplies for countries like Japan and Korea, India has the unique distinction of shipping oil from Sakhalin to Mangalore through sea routes of the region. Therefore, it is vital for India to have access to the region. If China continues to assert dominance over these waters, it will be difficult for India to continue with its activities through this channel. New Delhi realizes, now more than ever, that capacity building and maritime cooperation between India and ASEAN will be the key to stability in the region. It is important for India to sustain its position in the South China Sea.

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Genetic Engineering

Genetic engineering is the alteration or  deliberate modification of genetic code by artificial means.It involves modification of the characteristics of an organism by manipulating its genetic material. Further,genetic engineering refers to a set of technologies that are being used to change the genetic makeup of cells and move genes across species boundaries to produce novel organisms. The techniques involve highly sophisticated manipulations of genetic material and other biologically important chemicals.

Genes are the chemical blueprints that determine an organism's traits. Moving genes from one organism to another transfers those traits. Through genetic engineering, organisms are given new combinations of genes—and therefore new combinations of traits—that do not occur in nature and, indeed, cannot be developed by natural means. Such an artificial technology is radically different from traditional plant and animal breeding.

Nature can produce organisms with new gene combinations through sexual reproduction. A brown cow bred to a yellow cow may produce a calf of a completely new color. But reproductive mechanisms limit the number of new combinations. Cows must breed with other cows (or very near relatives). A breeder who wants a purple cow would be able to breed toward one only if the necessary purple genes were available somewhere in a cow or a near relative to cows. A genetic engineer has no such restriction. If purple genes are available anywhere in nature—in a sea urchin or an iris—those genes could be used in attempts to produce purple cows. This unprecedented ability to shuffle genes means that genetic engineers can concoct gene combinations that would never be found in nature.

Where are Genes located ?

Genes are segments of DNA located on chromosomes.DNA is the recipe for life. DNA is a molecule found in the nucleus of every cell and is made up of 4 subunits represented by the letters A, T, G, and C. The order of these subunits in the DNA strand holds a code of information for the cell. Just like the English alphabet makes up words using 26 letters, the genetic language uses 4 letters to spell out the instructions for how to make the proteins an organism will need to grow and live. Small segments of DNA are called genes. Each gene holds the instructions for how to produce a single protein. This can be compared to a recipe for making a food dish. A recipe is a set of instructions for making a single dish.An organism may have thousands of genes. The set of all genes in an organism is called a genome.

Why are proteins important?

Proteins do the work in cells. They can be part of structures (such as cell walls, organelles, etc). They can regulate reactions that take place in the cell. Or they can serve as enzymes, which speed-up reactions. Everything you see in an organism is either made of proteins or the result of a protein action.

 How is genetic engineering done?

Genetic engineering, also called transformation, works by physically removing a gene from one organism and inserting it into another, giving it the ability to express the trait encoded by that gene.It is the process of transferring specific genes from the chromosome of one organism and transplanting them into the chromosome of another organism in such a way that they become a reproductive part of the new organism.

The process that produces the resulting recombinant DNA involves four steps:

1. The desired DNA is cleaved from the donating chromosome by the action of restriction enzymes, which recognize and cut specific nucleotide segments, leaving a “sticky end” on both ends. The restriction enzymes also splice the receiving chromosome in a complementary location, again leaving “sticky ends” to receive the desired DNA. 
2. The desired DNA fragment is inserted into a vector, usually a plasmid, for transfer to the receiving chromosome. Plasmids are an ideal vector because they replicate easily inside host bacteria and readily accept and transfer new genes. Plasmids are circular DNA molecules found in the cytoplasm of bacteria that bond with the desired DNA fragment with the help of the joining enzyme, DNA ligase, to create the resulting recombinant DNA.
3. When the host cell reproduces, the plasmids inside also reproduce, making multiple clones of their DNA. Because the plasmid DNA contains the desired as well as unwanted DNA clones, the entire product is referred to as a gene library. The desired gene is similar to one book in that library.
4. To recover the desired DNA, the current technology is to screen unwanted cells from the mixture and then use gel electrophoresis to separate the remaining genes by movement on an electric grid. Gel electrophoresis uses a positively charged grid to attract the negatively charged DNA fragments, thereby separating them by size, because the smaller ones will migrate the most. Radioactive or fluorescent probes are added, which attract and bind with the desired DNA to produce visible bands. Once isolated, the DNA is available for commercial use.

How does genetic engineering differ from traditional breeding?

Although the goal of both genetic engineering and traditional plant breeding is to improve an organism’s traits, there are some key differences between them. While genetic engineering manually moves genes from one organism to another, traditional breeding moves genes through mating, or crossing, the organisms in hopes of obtaining offspring with the desired combination of traits.Therefore, half of the genes in the offspring of a cross come from each parent.

Traditional breeding is effective in improving traits, however, when compared with genetic engineering, it does have disadvantages. Since breeding relies on the ability to mate two organisms to move genes, trait improvement is basically limited to those traits that already exist within that species. Genetic engineering, on the other hand, physically removes the genes from one organism and places them into the other. This eliminates the need for mating and allows the movement of genes between organisms of any species. Therefore, the potential traits that can be used are virtually unlimited.Breeding is also less precise than genetic engineering. In breeding, half of the genes from each parent are passed on to the offspring. This may include many undesirable genes for traits that are not wanted in the new organism. Genetic engineering, however, allows for the movement of a single, or a few, genes.

Is there a difference between genetically engineered, genetically modified, and transgenic animals?

The terms genetically engineered, genetically modified, and transgenic are used synonymously. The term transgenic arises from the procedure of transgenesis, one method in which scientists have successfully inserted genes from one species to another. Throughout this package, the terms are used interchangeably to describe the same type of altered species.

What are the benefits of Genetic Engineering ?

Examples of genetically engineered (transgenic) organisms currently on the market include plants with resistance to some insects, plants that can tolerate herbicides, and crops with modified oil content.

Genetic engineering in its present form has been around for approximately 25 years. It has also been a very widely debated topic from its beginning in 1970s. There are many social consequences that are associated with genetic engineering, that makes the overall risk or benefit assessment very complicated. The benefits of genetic engineering in each field is mentioned below.

Medical Treatment: In humans, the most promising benefit of genetic engineering is gene therapy which is the medical treatment of a disease wherein the defective genes are repaired and replaced or therapeutic genes are introduced to fight the disease. Over the past decade, many autoimmune and heart diseases have been treated using gene therapy. Certain diseases like the Huntington's disease, ALS and cystic fibrosis is caused by defective genes. There is hope that a cure for such diseases can be found by either inserting the corrected gene or modifying the defective gene. Eventually, the hope is to completely eliminate genetic diseases and also treat non-genetic diseases with appropriate gene therapy. The latest research in the field makes it possible to repair or grow new muscle cells when they are not working or are damaged.

Pharmacology:  Thanks to genetic engineering, the pharmaceutical products available today are far superior to their predecessors. These new products are created by cloning certain genes. Some of the prominent examples are the bio-engineered insulin which was earlier obtained from sheep or cows and the human growth hormone which was earlier obtained from cadavers. New medicines are being made by changing the genetic structure of the plant cell.

Pregnancy Cases: Genetic engineering is also a boon for pregnant women who can choose to have their fetuses screened for genetic defects. These screenings can help the parents and doctors prepare for the arrival of the child who may have special needs during or after the delivery. A possible future benefit of genetic engineering which is very eagerly awaited is that a fetus with a genetic defect could be treated with genetic therapy even before it is born. Research is going on for gene therapy for embryos before it is implanted into the mother via in-vitro fertilization. The latest term coined is 'Designer Babies' wherein the couple can actually choose the features of the baby to be born!

Agriculture: The field of agriculture too greatly benefits from genetic engineering which has improved the genetic fitness of various plant species. The common benefits are increase in the efficiency of photosynthesis, increasing the resistance of the plant to salinity, drought and viruses and also reducing the plant's need for a nitrogen fertilizer.

List of some of the most upfront benefits of genetic engineering :

• Genetic engineering when used on microorganisms help in the creation of new pharmaceuticals which cannot be made in any other way.
• Genetic engineering helps in the process of bio remediation which is the process of cleaning up waste and pollution with the help of living organisms.
• Genetic engineering has helped lower the overall usage of herbicide and pesticide.
• Genetic engineering has helped with the production of vaccines and other drugs in plants.
• Genetic engineering has helped produce quicker and more predictable way of generating new cultivars. Further, the cultivar properties are better known today than it was ever known before.
• Today, genetic engineering can produce sustainable agriculture.Genetic engineering has produced very useful genetically modified breeds which can tolerate factory farming without any suffering.
• In humans, genetic engineering is used to treat genetic disorders and cancer. It also helps in supplying new body parts.
• Although, this has not been done today, genetic engineering has the potential of creating new types of human beings with many advantageous traits.
• Certain bacterial sequences are manipulated to transform waste into ethanol, so that it can be used as a fuel.

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Disadvantages Of Genetic Engineering

1) Genetic engineering is meant to make food crops more resistant to disease, but the mere act of modification of the naturally selected food crops may actually disturb the delicate balance of biodiversity which exists in nature

2) The production of GMOs has negative impacts on the natural ecosystem which are not apparent now but will be apparent in the future. For example, genetic changes in a particular plant or animal might render it harmful to another organism higher up in the food chain and ultimately this effect may build up to destroy the entire food chain in which that plant plays a role.

3) GMOs have been known to retain some of the genetically modified DNA in the final product made for human consumption. Such remnants of genetic material are harful to human health and can cause production of previously unknown allergens.

4) Genetically modified plants and animals have the potential to replace traditional farming or say poultry and meat-producing practices. This will result in destruction of economies based on these products.

5) In the context of applications of genetic engineering in human life, misuse of this technology in the production of biological warfare or weapons is a very major disadvantage.

6) Genetic engineering is being used to create human organs but in the long run if it can create genetically modified, perfect human specimens who are better than the creators than this may be disastrous.

7) Nature selection in man and the resulting diversity of the human genetic pool is essential for the survival of the species. Genetic engineering will interfere with this process too causing unknown complications.

8) Last but not the least in this long list of disadvantages of genetic engineering are the ethical and moral objections which religion has to these techniques. For example, the use of stem cells obtained from unborn human fetuses created and destroyed for this very purpose is unethical for religious people.

It is obvious from the given list of disadvantages of genetic engineering above that there is need to proceed with caution in use and the absolute necessity of creating as well as enforcing ethical legislation to prevent misuse also.Novel organisms bring novel risks, however, as well as the desired benefits. These risks must be carefully assessed to make sure that all effects—both desired and unintended—are benign. Examination of alternatives, and careful case-by-case evaluation of genetic engineering applications is required to move  toward sustainability.

Regulation in India 

In India, the Genetically Modified Organisms are regulated under the Environment Protection Act 1986 (EPA). In addition the Indian biosafety regulatory framework comprises, 1989 "Rules for the Manufacture, Use, Import, Export and Storage of Hazardous Microorganisms, genetically Modified Organisms and Cells" (1989 Rules), and Department of Biotechnology guidelines, the 1990 "Recombinant DNA Safety Guidelines" (1990 DBT Guidelines) and 1994 "Revised Guidelines for Safety in Biotechnology" (1994 DBT Guidelines) and 1998 "Revised Guidelines for Research in Transgenic Plants and Guidelines for Toxicity and Allergenicity Evaluation of Transgenic Seeds, Plants and Plant Parts" (1998 DBT Guidelines).

The regulations classify activities involving GMOs into four risk categories, provide lists of bacterial, fungal, parasitic and viral agents that fall into each category, and specify the roles of the institution and the company, the IBSC and the RCGM vis à vis the risk categories:Category I comprises routine recombinant DNA experiments conducted inside a laboratory.Category II consists of both laboratory and greenhouse experiments involving transgenes that combat biotic stresses through resistance to herbicides and pesticides.Categories III and IV comprise experiments and field trials where the escape of transgenic traits into the open environment could cause significant alterations in the ecosystem.

Through the biosafety regulations, Government of India established a three-tier regulatory structure at the central level in New Delhi comprising three committees: 

The Review Committee on Genetic Manipulation (RCGM) under the Ministry of Science and Technology (MoST).

The Genetic Engineering Approval Committee (GEAC) under the Ministry of Environment and Forestry (MoEF).

The Monitoring and Evaluation Committee (MEC) under DBT/MoST.

DBT provides the secretariat for RCGM and MEC, and the MoEF for GEAC. The GoI also issued directives on the setting up a de-centralised structure consisting of Institutional Biosafety Committees (IBSCs) and State and District Level Committees (SBCCs and DLCs). The biosafety regulations indicate in broad terms the composition and responsibilities of all these six bodies. DBT is represented on all of them except the SBCCs and DLCs. IBSCs have been established in all institutions (public and private) that deal with GMOs. But, even as late as of 2004, only three states (out of a total of twenty-five states and several ‘union territories’ that make up the Indian Union) had created SBCCs, while DLCs have not been set up anywhere. RCGM’s mandate is to assess and decide on the applications submitted by institutions and companies for conducting R&D work, greenhouse tests and contained field tests on plots of less than one acre in size (0.4 hectare).

Approval process for commercial release of GM crops :

• Initially, the company developing the GM crop undertakes several biosafety assessments including, environmental, food, and feed safety assessments in containment.

• This is followed by Bio-safety Research Trials which require prior approval of the regulators, the GEAC and the RCGM.

• Approval for environmental release is accorded by the GEAC after considering the findings of bio-safety studies.

• Finally, commercial release is permitted only for those GM crops found to be safe for humans and the environment.

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Voyager Interstellar Mission

The Voyager program is an American scientific program that launched two unmanned space missions, the probes Voyager 1 and Voyager 2. These were launched in 1977 to take advantage of a favorable alignment of the planets during the late 1970s. Of all the NASA missions, none has visited as many planets, rings, and satellites, nor has provided as many fresh insights into the outer planets, as Voyager.Although they were designated officially to study just the planetary systems of Jupiter and Saturn, the space probes were able to continue their mission into the outer solar system, and they are expected to push through the heliosheath in deep space.Voyager is planetary exploration on a grand scale.

First conceived as a "Grand Tour" of the solar system from Jupiter to Pluto, then scaled back to a more modest mission called Mariner Jupiter-Saturn until its incarnation on the eve of launch as Voyager, the mission has been, and will remain well into the future, NASA's biggest planetary expedition. The two Voyagers have explored more planets (four), have discovered more moons (22), and have returned more photographic images, than any other space flight. The original price tag of nearly a billion dollars made it the second most expensive planetary voyage, exceeded only by Viking, which landed on Mars in 1976.Each Voyager spacecraft weighed more than any Surveyor or Ranger sent to the Moon and more than any Mariner or Pioneer probe (except for Pioneer Venus), though less than the combined weight of the Viking lander and orbiter.

The twin Voyager 1 and 2 spacecraft continue exploring where nothing from Earth has flown before. In the 34th year after their 1977 launches, they each are much farther away from Earth and the Sun than Pluto. Voyager 1 and 2 are now in the "Heliosheath" - the outermost layer of the heliosphere where the solar wind is slowed by the pressure of interstellar gas. Both spacecraft are still sending scientific information about their surroundings through the Deep Space Network (DSN) .

The primary mission was the exploration of Jupiter and Saturn. After making a string of discoveries there -- such as active volcanoes on Jupiter's moon Io and intricacies of Saturn's rings -- the mission was extended. Voyager 2 went on to explore Uranus and Neptune, and is still the only spacecraft to have visited those outer planets. The adventurers' current mission, the Voyager Interstellar Mission (VIM), will explore the outermost edge of the Sun's domain. And beyond.

As of 2012, Voyager 1 is the farthest manmade object that has ever been sent from the Earth. On 15 June 2012, scientists at NASA reported that Voyager 1 might be very close to entering interstellar space and becoming the first manmade object to leave the Solar System.

Both of these scientific missions into outer space have gathered large amounts of data about the gas giants of the solar system, and their orbiting satellites, about which little had been previously known. In addition, the trajectories of the two spacecraft have been used to place limits on the existence of any hypothetical trans-Neptunian planets.

Of the two space probes of the Voyager Program, Voyager 2 was launched first. Its trajectory was designed to take advantage of an unusual alignment of the planets (that occurs once every 177 years) that allowed one space probe to fly by Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, if everything went well. Of course, in case of a serious malfunction, such as in all of the space probe's radio transmitters or receivers, then that would have been the end of the long mission (to four planets), since there was not a second space probe to fill the gap. That was the gamble that NASA and the JPL were forced to take.

During the 1990s, Voyager 1 overtook the slower deep-space probes Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11 to become the most distant manmade object from Earth, a record that it will keep for the foreseeable future. Even the faster (at its launch) New Horizons space probe will not pass it, since the final speed of New Horizons (after maneuvering within the solar system) will be less than the current speed of Voyager 1.

Voyager 1 and Pioneer 10 are the most widely separated man-made objects anywhere, since they are traveling in roughly opposite directions from the Solar System.

Periodic contact has been maintained with Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 to monitor conditions in the outer expanses of the Solar System. The radioactive power sources of both spacecraft were still producing significant amounts of electric power as of 2012, keeping them operational, and it is hoped that this will allow the heliopause of the Solar System to be located and investigated.

On June 10, 2011, scientists studying the Voyager data noticed what may be giant magnetic bubbles located in the heliosphere, the region of our solar system that separates us from the violent solar winds of interstellar space. The bubbles, scientists theorize, form when the magnetic field of the Sun becomes warped at the edge of our Solar System.

The Voyager primary mission was completed in 1989, with the close flyby of Neptune by Voyager 2. The Voyager Interstellar Mission (VIM) is a mission extension, which began when the two spacecraft had already been in flight for over 12 years.Both spacecraft also have adequate electrical power and attitude control propellant to continue operating until around 2025, after which there may not be available electrical power to support science instrument operation. At that time, science data return and spacecraft operations will cease.

Both Voyagers are headed towards the outer boundary of the solar system in search of the heliopause, the region where the Sun's influence wanes and the beginning of interstellar space can be sensed. The heliopause has never been reached by any spacecraft; the Voyagers may be the first to pass through this region, which is thought to exist somewhere from 8 to 14 billion miles from the Sun. This is where the million-mile-per-hour solar winds slows to about 250,000 miles per hour—the first indication that the wind is nearing the heliopause. The Voyagers should cross the heliopause 10 to 20 years after reaching the termination shock. The Voyagers have enough electrical power and thruster fuel to operate at least until 2020. By that time, Voyager 1 will be 12.4 billion miles (19.9 billion KM) from the Sun and Voyager 2 will be 10.5 billion miles (16.9 billion KM) away. Eventually, the Voyagers will pass other stars. In about 40,000 years, Voyager 1 will drift within 1.6 light years (9.3 trillion miles) of AC+79 3888, a star in the constellation of Camelopardalis. In some 296,000 years, Voyager 2 will pass 4.3 light years (25 trillion miles) from Sirius, the brightest star in the sky . The Voyagers are destined—perhaps eternally—to wander the Milky Way.

Current Status :

On December 3, 2012, NASA scientists announced that Voyager 1 had discovered a previously unknown region of the heliosphere. Described as a "magnetic highway," here the pressure of the interstellar medium sweeps back the Sun’s magnetic field and with it many of the slower moving particles emerging from within the solar system. These are mixed with faster moving particles entering the solar system from the interstellar medium. The magnetic field in this newly discovered region is 10 times more intense than Voyager 1 encountered before the termination shock. It is expected to be the last barrier before the spacecraft exits the solar system completely and enters interstellar space.

On November 7, 2012, Voyager 2 reached 100 AU, making it the third human made object to reach 100 AU. Voyager 1 was 122 AU from the Sun, and Pioneer 10 is presumed to be at 107 AU. Both of the Voyager Spacecraft are performing well and are still communicating with the Earth, while Pioneer has ceased communications. Both Voyagers are healthy and well, as they continue to study the Heliosheath and look for the Heliopause, where the solar wind ends and Interstellar space begins.

Voyager Golden Record 

The Voyager Golden Records are phonograph records which were included aboard both Voyager spacecraft, which were launched in 1977. They contain sounds and images selected to portray the diversity of life and culture on Earth, and are intended for any intelligent extraterrestrial life form, or for future humans, who may find them.

The contents of the Voyager Golden Record is a collection of 116 images and a variety of natural sounds, such as those made by surf, wind, and thunder, and animal sounds, including the songs of birds and whales. To this they added musical selections from different cultures and eras, spoken greetings in fifty-nine languages, and printed messages from President Jimmy Carter and U.N. Secretary-General Kurt Waldheim.

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Pale Blue Dot

The Pale Blue Dot is a photograph of planet Earth taken in 1990 by the Voyager 1 spacecraft from a record distance of about 6 billion kilometers (3.7 billion miles) from Earth, as part of the solar system Family Portrait series of images. In the photograph, Earth is shown as a tiny dot (0.12 pixel in size) against the vastness of space.

Seen from about 6 billion kilometers (3.7 billion miles), Earth appears as a tiny dot (the blueish-white speck approximately halfway down the brown band to the right) within the darkness of deep space.

Images taken by Voyager Spacecrafts 

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