Left Wing Extremism in India (2)

Dynamics of Maoist insurgency  (source - MHA)

Many sections of society, especially the younger generation, have romantic illusions about the Maoists, arising out of an incomplete understanding of their ideology. The central theme of Maoist ideology is violence. The Maoist insurgency doctrine glorifies violence as the primary means to overwhelm the existing socio-economic and political structures. The Peoples Liberation Guerilla Army (PLGA), the armed wing of CPI (Maoist), has been created with this purpose in mind. In the first stage of the insurgency, the PLGA resorts to guerrilla warfare, which primarily aims at creating a vacuum at the grass-roots level of the existing governance structures. They achieve this by killing lower-level government officials, police-personnel of the local police stations, the workers of mainstream political parties and the peoples representatives of the Panchayati Raj system. After creating a vacuum, they coerce the local population to join the movement. A strident propaganda is also carried out against the purported and real inadequacies of the existing state structure.

In areas under Maoist domination, the absence of governance becomes a self- fulfilling prophecy since the delivery systems are extinguished through killings and intimidation. This is the first step in the strategy of the Maoists to seek to control the countryside. In the meanwhile, many Front Organisations are created to facilitate mass-mobilisation in semi-urban and urban areas through ostensibly democratic means. Most of the Front Organisations are led by well-educated intellectuals with firm belief in the Maoist insurgency doctrine. These ideologues function as masks to cover the violent nature of the CPI (Maoist) ideology. They form propaganda/disinformation machinery of the party.

They stridently take up issues like human rights violations by security forces etc. and often make fantastic claims in this regard which gets reported even by the mainstream media. The Front Organisations also skilfully use state structures and legal processes to further the Maoist agenda and weaken the enforcement regime. The important functions of these Organisations include raising funds for the insurgency, creating urban shelters for underground cadres, providing legal help to arrested cadres and mass- mobilisation by agitating over issues of relevance/ convenience. The Front Organisations aim to provide short-term democratic subterfuge to cover-up the totalitarian and oppressive nature of the Maoist ideology. Finally, the CPI (Maoist) also have a strategic game-plan to create a ‘United Front’ with all like-minded insurgent / terrorist outfits in India. It needs to be remembered that many of these outfits are supported by external forces inimical to India and the CPI (Maoist) consider such alliances as strategic assets.

In a nutshell, the CPI (Maoist), the main LWE outfit in India, aims to overthrow the existing democratic structure with violence as their primary weapon, and the Front Organisations and Strategic United Fronts as secondary weapons and plan to usher in so called ‘New Democratic Revolution’.

Government of India's Approach

The Government’s approach is to deal with Left Wing Extremism in a holistic manner, in the areas of security, development, ensuring rights of local communities, improvement in governance and public perception management. In dealing with this decades-old problem, it has been felt appropriate, after various high-level deliberations and interactions with the State Governments concerned, that an integrated approach aimed at the relatively more affected areas would deliver results. With this in view, a detailed analysis of the spread and trends in respect of Left Wing Extremist violence has been made and 106 most affected districts in nine States have been taken up for special attention with regard to planning, implementation and monitoring various schemes. However, 'Police' and 'Public Order' being State subjects, action on maintenance of law and order lies primarily in the domain of the State Governments. The Central Government closely monitors the situation and supplements and coordinates their efforts in several ways. These include providing Central Armed Police Forces (CAPFs) and Commando Battalions for Resolute Action (CoBRA); sanction of India Reserve (IR) battalions, setting up of Counter Insurgency and Anti Terrorism (CIAT) schools; modernisation and upgradation of the State Police and their Intelligence apparatus under the Scheme for Modernization of State Police Forces (MPF scheme); re-imbursement of security related expenditure under the Security Related Expenditure (SRE) Scheme; filling up critical infrastructure gaps under the Scheme for Special Infrastructure in Left Wing Extremism affected States; providing helicopters for anti-naxal operations, assistance in training of State Police through the Ministry of Defence, the Central Police Organisations and the Bureau of Police Research and Development; sharing of Intelligence; facilitating inter-State coordination; assistance in community policing and civic action programmes etc. The underlying philosophy is to enhance the capacity of State Governments to tackle the Maoist menace in a concerted manner. The Division also monitors the implementation of Integrated Action Plan for LWE Districts and various other development and infrastructure initiatives of the Government of India. 

Naxal Management Division

This Division was created w.e.f. October 19, 2006 in the Ministry to effectively address the LWE problem in a holistic manner. The Division monitors the LWE situation and counter-measures being taken by the affected States. The Division coordinates the implementation of various development schemes of the Ministries/Departments of Govt. of India in LWE affected States.

Role and Functions of the Division

• Provide assistance to State Governments for creation of operational infrastructure and logistics required to combat LWE.
• Deployment of CAPFs in LWE affected States.
• Review the security situation in the LWE affected States and Issue advisories and messages to the State Governments concerned.
• Reimburse security related expenditure incurred by the LWE affected States on Anti-naxal operations under the Security Related Expenditure (SRE) scheme.
• Provide assistance to the State Governments to fill up critical infrastructure gaps under the Scheme for Special Infrastructure (SIS) in Left Wing Extremism affected States.
• Provide assistance to the State Governments for construction/ strengthening of fortified police stations under the Scheme for Construction/ Strengthening of 400 Fortified Police Stations in LWE affected districts.
• Coordinate implementation of various development schemes, flagship programmes and distribution of titles under the Scheduled Tribes and other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006, in LWE affected States.
• Coordinate implementation of LWE related Schemes of other Central Ministries, especially the Integrated Action Plan for 82 Districts and Road Requirement Plan for 34 Districts.
• Media and public perception management.
  

Review and Monitoring Mechanisms 

A number of review and monitoring mechanisms have been established by the Government of India in this regard. They include:

• A Standing Committee of the Chief Ministers of States concerned under the chairmanship of the Union Home Minister, to work out a coordinated policy and specific measures to deal with the Left Wing Extremism problem on the political, security and development fronts.
• Review Group (earlier called the Task Force) under the Cabinet Secretary to review coordinated efforts across a range of development and security measures.
• A Coordination Centre chaired by the Union Home Secretary to review and coordinate the efforts of the State Governments, where the State Governments are represented by the Chief Secretaries and the Directors General of Police.
• A Task Force under the Special Secretary (Internal Security), Ministry of Home Affairs, with senior officers from the Intelligence agencies, the Central Armed Police Forces and the State Police Forces, to coordinate inter-state issues.
• An Empowered Group of Officers, headed by the Member-Secretary Planning Commission, with officers from the development Ministries and the Planning Commission, to oversee effective implementation of development schemes in Left Wing Extremism affected States.

New Initiatives

>A Unified Command has been set up in the States of Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and Odisha, which are the most affected States. Besides, West Bengal Government has also set up Unified Command. The Unified Command will have officers from the security establishment, besides civilian officers representing the civil administration and it will carry out carefully planned anti-LWE measures. 

>The Central Government approved a new scheme to assist the State Governments for construction/strengthening of 400 fortified police stations @ Rs. 2 crore each in Left Wing Extremism affected districts on 80:20 basis.

>An Empowered Group of Officers was set up at the level of the Central Government to over-ride or modify existing instructions on implementation of various development programmes and flagship schemes, having regard to the local needs and conditions in Left Wing Extremism affected areas for accelerated development.

>The Left Wing Extremism affected States have been asked to effectively implement the provisions of the Panchayats (Extension to the Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996 (PESA) on priority, which categorically assigns rights over minor forest produce to the Gram Sabhas.

Important Schemes for LWE affect areas 

Security Related Expenditure (SRE) Scheme : Under the Security Related Expenditure (SRE) scheme, funds are provided for meeting the recurring expenditure relating to insurance, training and operational needs of the security forces, rehabilitation of Left Wing Extremist cadres who surrender in accordance with the surrender and rehabilitation policy of the State Government concerned, community policing, security related infrastructure for village defence committees and publicity material.

Special Infrastructure Scheme (SIS) : The Scheme for Special Infrastructure in Leftwing Extremism affected States was approved in the Eleventh Plan, with an allocation of Rs. 500 crore, to cater to critical infrastructure gaps, which cannot be covered under the existing schemes. These relate to requirements of mobility for the police / security forces by upgrading existing roads / tracks in inaccessible areas, providing secure camping grounds and helipads at strategic locations in remote and interior areas, measures to enhance security in respect of police stations / outposts located in vulnerable areas etc.

Central Scheme for assistance to civilian victims/family of victims of Terrorist, Communal and Naxal violence : The broad aim of the Scheme is to assist families of victims of Terrorist, Communal and Naxal violence. An amount of Rs. 3 lakh is given to the affected family under the scheme. The assistance given to those who are adversely affected by naxal violence under this scheme is in addition to the ex-gratia payment of Rs. 1 lakh paid under the Security Related Expenditure (SRE) scheme.

Integrated Action Plan : The Planning Commission is implementing the Integrated Action Plan (IAP) for 82 Selected Tribal and Backward Districts for accelerated development. The aim of this initiative is to provide public infrastructure and services in 82 affected / contiguous Districts. Originally, a sum of Rs. 25 crores and Rs. 30 crores was released to 60 Districts during the financial years 2010-11 and 2011-12 respectively. This Scheme has now been extended to 22 more Districts, taking the total coverage to 82 Districts. The nature of major works/projects taken up by the districts under the IAP include construction of School Buildings / School Furniture, Anganwadi Centres, Drinking Water Facilities, Rural Roads, Panchayats Bhawan / Community Halls, Godowns / PDS shops, livelihood activities, skill development/ trainings, Minor Irrigation Works, Electric Lighting, Health Centres/Facilities, Ashram Schools, construction of Toilets, construction of multi-purpose chabutra, construction of passenger waiting hall, special coaching classes for students, construction of ANM Centres, development of play grounds etc. Out of 100133 projects taken up by the states under the IAP, 69056 projects have been completed till 8.1.2013.

Road Requirement Plan for LWE areas : The Road Requirement Plan (RRP) Phase-I was approved in February, 2009 for improvement of road connectivity in 34 extremely LWE affected districts in 8 States viz. Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa and Uttar Pradesh. The RRP-I envisages development of 1126 kms of National Highways and 4351 kms of State Roads (total 5477 kms), at a cost of Rs. 7300 crore. A length of 1891 kms has been built at an expenditure of Rs 2346 crores (as on 31.10.2012). The stretches for Phase-II of the Road Requirement Plan have been finalised by the Ministry of Home Affairs, based on the priority indicated by the State Governments and is under consideration with the Ministry of Road Transport & Highways.

Scheme of Fortified Police Stations : The Ministry has sanctioned 400 police stations in 9 LWE affected States at a unit cost Rs. 2 crores under this scheme.

Civic Action Programme : Under this scheme financial grants are sanctioned to CAPFs to undertake civic action in the affected states. This is a successful scheme which aims to build bridges between the local population and the security forces.

Conclusion

It is the belief of the Government of India that through a holistic approach focussing on development and security related interventions, the LWE problem can be successfully tackled. However, it is clear that the Maoists do not want root causes like underdevelopment to be addressed in a meaningful manner since they resort to targeting school buildings, roads, railways, bridges, health infrastructure, communication facilities etc in a major way. They wish to keep the population in their areas of influence marginalized to perpetuate their outdated ideology. Consequently, the process of development has been set back by decades in many parts of the country under LWE influence. This needs to be recognised by the civil society and the media to build pressure on the Maoists to eschew violence, join the mainstream and recognise the fact that the socio-economic and political dynamics and aspirations of 21st Century India are far removed from the Maoist world-view. Further, an ideology based on violence and annihilation is doomed to fail in a democracy which offers legitimate forums of grievance redressal.

Left Wing Extremism in India (1)

A Brief history

In order to understand left wing extremism in India, we need to look at the evolution of communism in India. Even before independence, a section of leaders argued that communism and socialism are ideally suited for a society like ours, which is divided along religion, caste, and ethnic lines. They argued that it was the only way to emancipate the vast number of poor people in India and create a classless and just society. This led to the creation of the Communist Party of India or CPI.

Formed on 26th December 1925, the Communist Party of India is one of the oldest political parties in the country. Before independence, because of a ban on all communist activities by British authorities, the communists were not able to build a strong nationwide organization. However, two campaigns led by communists immediately before and after independence is worth noting. One was the “Tebhaga movement”, led by peasants’ front of CPI “Kisan Sabha” in 1946. It was fought to increase the crop share of peasants from half to two-thirds, thereby reducing the share of feudal landlord to one-third.

Another campaign was against the brutal repression of peasants by feudal landlords during the regime of Nizam in the Telangana region. Although these two movements were not very successful, they helped communists to gain a strong hold in social and economically backward areas.

After independence, the Communist Party of India has emerged as the largest opposition party at national level. The first major crisis in the communist family came during the Sino-Soviet split and the 1962 Sino-Indian war. A large group of pro-China communists backed Chinese version of the events and blamed India to be the aggressor. The pro-Chinese faction agreed with China that the Soviet Union was following “Revisionism” and “Socialist Imperialism” and “Sectarianism”. This led to a split in the communist party into CPI (pro-Soviet) and CPI(M) (pro-Chinese) branches. While the Communist parties were struggling on ideological issues, a young communist leader by the name of Charu Majumdar was busy preparing his own plans to usher a “revolution” in India.

Charu Majumdar (1918-1972), son of a freedom fighter, was born in Siliguri, Darjeeling Dist. He took part in the “Tebhaga movement”, which gave him experience in organizing armed rebellion. He was deeply influenced by Mao Zedong and wanted to emulate the Chinese revolution in India. During the years 1965-1967, he wrote a series of eight articles arguing that the situation in India was ripe for armed rebellion. His documents formed the basis for Naxalism and were called the “Historic eight documents”.He was opposed to CPI/CPI(M) line of working within the framework of Indian constitution. In order to understand why he was opposed to the Indian state, it is important to grasp his view of the Indian government. He argued that the Indian government was a semi-colonial, feudalistic and imperial entity that needed to be overthrown. In an article in 1965 he wrote-

"The government is failing to supply food to the people, so the people have become agitated. So it is in the interest of the reactionary bourgeoisie of India that India has attacked Pakistan. The US imperialist plan of the world war is also operating behind this war. By attacking Pakistan, the ruling class again wants to create a tide of bourgeois nationalism. But this time it is clear like daylight that India alone is the aggressor. So, as a result of the defeat of the Indian army, the anti-government struggle will fast crystallize among the masses. So Marxists want today that the aggressive Indian army should be defeated. This defeat will create new mass agitations. Not merely wishing that they should be defeated; Marxists at the same time should make efforts so that this defeat becomes imminent. In every province of India agitations should be created on the lines the mass agitation in Kashmir is progressing."

During the mid-1960s, he realized that the time was ripe to launch the revolution since the Government of India was struggling due to the 1962 and 1965 wars, and the bad economic situation in the country.

Naxalbari is a small village in the Darjeeling district of West Bengal. During the spring of 1967, the landless peasants, supported by hard line communists like Charu Majumdar and Kanu Sanyal etc. forcibly occupied the lands belonging to their “class enemies”. The clashes were brutal. The communist government in power at that time was embarrassed by the behavior of its own cadre and put down the uprising ruthlessly. The left government dismissed the uprising as “Left Adventurism”, whereas hardliners called the left government’s policy as a “betrayal of Marxist ideology”. Even though the “Naxalbari uprising” was a failure, it marked the beginning of violent left wing extremist movement in India, and the terms “Naxalism” and “Naxalite” were born.

In 1967, the All India Coordination Committee of Communist Revolutionaries (AICCCR - initially called AICCCR of CPI[M] but later changed to simply AICCCR) was formed by Charu Majumdar and Kanu Sanyal. On 22nd of April 1969 (coinciding with Lenin’s birthday), the Communist Party of India (Marxist-Leninist) was formed by AICCCR with Charu Majumdar as Secretary of the Central Organizing Committee. The AICCCR dissolved itself.

During 1969-72, fierce battles raged between CPI-ML and Government authorities resulting in large-scale violence and bloodshed. It went on until July 1972, when Calcutta police arrested Charu Majumdar. He died in Lal Bazar police station on July 28, 1972. His death was a body blow to the Naxalites across the country. With his death, the central authority of Naxalism collapsed. From then on Naxalite groups went through a series of splits and a few mergers. There were many instances of splinter groups targeting each other’s cadre. The center of gravity of Naxalism shifted from West Bengal to Bihar and Andhra Pradesh.

How ever, instead of looking at every single split and merger, we are going to concentrate on three “groups” and their splits/mergers. They can be loosely termed as “Charu Majumdar group”, “Maoist Communist Center” and “Peoples War Group”. Most of the Naxalite groups in India can be traced back to the first group.

The splits in Charu Majumdar group can be termed as natural because of the absolute tyrannical style followed by Charu Majumdar. He was not someone who would accommodate divergent viewpoints. He was fanatical about revolution and considered following mass line as dilution of ideology.

In Bihar, the left wing extremism is closely linked to caste differences, land related disputes and labor exploitation. Being an agrarian economy, the disputes regarding distribution of lands, minimum wages, working conditions, etc were contentious issues between largely upper caste landlords and landless lower caste poor people . Some of the landless poor drifted towards left wing extremism to fight against oppression. In the year 1969, the Maoist Communist Centre (MCC) was formed by Kanhai Chatterjee and Amulya Sen. Although they supported the Charu Majumdar led CPI (ML), they did not join it. This group mainly consisted of lower caste and landless people and was extremely savage in executing landlords. The landlords belonging to the upper/middle caste saw this group as a threat to their dominance and raised private militias. Gangs like Ranvir Sena ruthlessly massacred Naxalites and those who were suspected to be Naxalite sympathizers. Unlike CPI (ML) which went through a series of splits, MCC remained intact. It merged with the Revolutionary Communist Centre, India (Maoist) to form Maoist Communist Centre (India) or MCC (I) in 2003. Again in September 2004 MCC (I) merged with Communist Party of India (Marxist-Leninist) People’s War to form Communist Party of India (Maoist) or CPI (Maoist) and emerged as the most powerful Naxalite group in the country.

In 1968, Due to the differences with Charu Majumdar, the Andhra Pradesh revolutionaries led by T.Nagi Reddy, D.V. Rao and Pulla Reddy were booted out of AICCCR. The splits that plagued CPI (ML) did not spare the Andhra Group either. In 1971, Pulla Reddy separated from T.Nagi Reddy and D.V. Rao and formed his own party. Pulla Reddy later joined hands with Satyanarain Singh (CPI [ML] SNS group).

Meanwhile, after the death of T.Nagi Reddy, D.V. Rao became the leader of Andhra group. During the early 70’s most of the Naxalite activity was concentrated around Srikakulam district region. The government forces successfully neutralized their influence by killing the top leaders like Appalasuri, Adibhatla Kailasam, etc. One of the biggest advantages of Naxalites in Andhra Pradesh is their ability to gather support among teachers, writers and civil liberties groups. These groups have successfully provided the needed justification for violence perpetrated by Naxals by highlighting the failures of Government and pointing out the excesses of police forces. A large number of movies, sympathetic to the cause of Naxalites are produced in Andhra Pradesh even today. The basic theme of the movies is always the same. The feudal landlords and Government collude with each other and perpetrate atrocities against innocent people and the hero turns into a Naxalite to punish the bad guys. It is interesting to note that every single top hero in the last 25 years has acted in at least one such movie. In the late 70s, Kondapalli Seetharamayya successfully rebuilt the Naxal movement, which had lost its steam due to the police actions. At one time as many as 74 dalams or guerilla groups operated in the Naxal strongholds. From Srikakulam area, the Naxals successfully shifted their base to Telangana region, especially Adilabad, Karimnagar, Warangal, etc. Unlike the Charu Majumdar line, the Naxalites in Andhra Pradesh were not averse to the mass line. However, by early nineties the government had slowly regained an upper hand over the Naxals. In September 2004, it merged with MCC (I) to form CPI (Maoist).

Current Scenario

As we have seen in the above section, Left Wing extremism in India is not a recent phenomenon. However, certain trends in recent years indicate that the threat from these organizations can increase by orders of magnitude, if strong, swift action is not taken. Left Wing extremists are transforming from “menace” to “serious threat”.

• Two of the most powerful Left Wing organizations, CPML-PW and MCC-I have merged into single entity called CPI-Maoist .It is a significant event since these two groups are responsible for 90% of the Left Wing extremist violence in India.
• The situation in Nepal has serious security implications for India. The success of CPN (Maoists) will help the creation of compact revolutionary zone (CRZ) stretching from Nepal to Andhra Pradesh. This will allow easy movement of men and material through out the CRZ. It will also allow Maoists to increase their “zone” to neighboring areas of CRZ.
• Because of the lack of uniform policy against Maoists across the states, the Maoists are easily finding safe heavens in states, which are not ruthless against them. After the Andhra Pradesh government has lifted ban on Naxals and invited them for talks, Maoists have quietly gathered strength and later on rejected peace talks blaming government of being stubborn. The effects of this action will be felt not only in Andhra Pradesh but also in all other Naxal-infested states.
• Intelligence sources say that the sophistication of land mines and Improvised Explosive Devices used by Maoists is a result of training received from LTTE
• There are reports about links between Maoists and Pakistan’s Inter Services Intelligence (ISI). The Maoists vehemently deny it and call it a “Government ploy” to malign the Naxal movement.However, there can be no doubt that ISI would be more than willing to provide all kinds of “assistance” to bleed India from within. The ISI can also use Nepal Maoists to control Indian Maoists.
• From 55 Districts in nine states in October 2003, the Maoists have spread their influence to 170 districts in 15 states by February 2005.
• Around 1997 itself Naxalites were accumulating around Rs. 1000 million per year in Andhra Pradesh alone through extortions, kidnapping and loot. Similar amounts of money went to Left Wing extremists in Bihar as well.
• In an unprecedented act, on 11th February 2005, a group of around 200 Maoists, which include 50 women, have attacked a KSRP camp in a school at Venkatammanahalli in Pavagada taluk of Tumkur district in Karnataka. In the attack, six Karnataka State Reserve Police personnel and a civilian were killed and five others were injured.
• Silda camp attack -2010
• 2013 Naxal attack in Darbha valley

Red Corridor of India

The Boxer Rebellion

Beginning in 1898, groups of peasants in northern China began to band together into a secret society known as I-ho ch'üan ("Righteous and Harmonious Fists"), called the "Boxers" by Western press. Members of the secret society practiced boxing and calisthenic rituals (hence the nickname, the "Boxers") which they believed would make them impervious to bullets.

At first, the Boxers wanted to destroy the Ch'ing dynasty (which had ruled China for over 250 years) and wanted to rid China of all foreign influence (which they considered a threat to Chinese culture). When the Empress Dowager backed the Boxers, the Boxers turned solely to ridding China of foreigners.

By late 1899, bands of Boxers were massacring Christian missionaries and Chinese Christians. By May 1900, the Boxer Rebellion had come out of the countryside and was being waged in the capital of Peking (now Beijing). To help their fellow countrymen and to protect their interests in China, an international force of 2,100 American, British, Russian, French, Italian, and Japanese soldiers were sent to subdue the "rebellion."

On June 18, 1900, the Empress Dowager ordered all foreigners to be killed. Several foreign ministers and their families were killed before the international force could protect them. On August 14, 1900, the international force took Peking and subdued the rebellion.

The Boxer Rebellion weakened the Ch'ing dynasty's power and hastened the Republican Revolution of 1911 that overthrew the boy emperor and made China a republic.

Boxer Fighters

Troops of the Eight nations alliance in 1900.
 Left to right: Britain, United States, Australian, British India,
Germany, France, Austria-Hungary, Italy, Japan

Classification of Tribes in India

The Tribes of India can be classified based on :

(i) Territorial Distribution
(ii) Linguistic Distribution
(iii) Occupational Distribution
(iv) Physical Characteristics
(v) Classification according to Culture Contact

(i) Territorial Distribution

According to the first classification, they may be divided into four important groups :
(a) the tribes living in the northern and north-eastern zone;
(b) tribes inhabiting the central zone,
(c) tribes scattered over the extreme corners of south- western India in the hills and the converging lines of the Ghats; and

(d) small groups in several parts of the country or even within the political boundary of the country.

(a)The most important tribes living between Assam and Tibet may be mentioned the Aka, the Dafla, the Miri, Gurung, and the Aptanic on the West of the Subansiri river, and the Gallong, the Minyong the Pasi, the Padam and the Pangi in the Dehong valley. The Mishmi tribes live in the high ranges between the Debong and Lohit rivers, the Chulikata and Belejiyas on the western and the Digaree and the Meju on the eastern parts. Farther east are found the Khamtis and the Singhops and beyond them, converging on the south are the different Naga tribes occupying the mountain valleys on both sides of the Patkois.

The Naga tribes consist of five major groups: the Rangpan and the Konyak in the northern; the Rengma and the Sema, and the Angami in the western; the AoLahota, Phom, Chang, Santam and the Yimstsunger in the central; the Kacha and the Kabui in the southern and the Tangakhul and theKalyo-Kengu in the eastern section. South of the Naga hills running through the States of Manipur, Tipperah, the Chittagong hill tracts live the Kukis, the Lushais, the Lakhers, the Chins, the Khasis and the Garos, many of whom are really overflows of the tribes from across the Frontiers or are closely related. In the Sub-Himalayan region in Sikkim and the northern portions of Darjeeling, there are a number of rather primitive tribes of whom the Lepchas are the best known. In U. P. and UTK also a number of tribes such as the Tharus, Bhoksa, Khasa, Korwa, Bijar, Bhuia, Majhi, Cheri, Raji, and Kharwar are found. 

(b) The central or the middle zone is separated from the north-eastern zone by the gap between the Garo hills and Rajmahal hills and consists of plateaus and mountainous belt between the Indo- Gangetic plain to the north and roughly the Krishna river to the South.

In this zone we have another massing of tribal peoples in M. P. with extensions in U.P.,UTK, MP,Chattisgarh and AP, Southern Rajasthan, Northern Maharashtra, Bihar,Jharkhand, Orissa. Northern Rajasthan, Southern Maharashtra and Bastar form the peripheral areas of this zone. The important tribes inhabiting this zone beginning from the Eastern Ghats and Orissa hills are the Savara, Gadabi, and Borido of the Ganjam district; the Juang Kharia, Khond, Bhumij and the Bhuiya of the Orissa hills. In the plateau of the Chota Nagpur live the Mundas, the Santhals, the Oraons, the Hos and the Birhors. Further west along the Vindhya ranges live the Katkaris, Kols and the Bhils, the latter extending as far as north-west as the Aravalli hills. The Gonds form the largest group and occupy what is known as the 'Gondwanaland' and extend southwards into AP and Chattisgarh.On both sides of the Satpuras and around the Maikal hills are found similar tribes like the Korku, the Agaria, the Pardhan and the Baigas. In the hills of Bastar State live some of the most picturesque of these tribes, the Murias, the Hill Murias of the Adbhujhamar hills and the Bison- horn Marias of the Indravati valley. Majority of these people show similarity of race and culture.

(c) The third zone consists of that part of the Southern India which falls south of the river Krishna (below latitude 16 N) stretching from Wynaad to Cape Comorin.AP,Karnataka,TN,Kerala fall within this zone. From the fact that they occupy these marginal areas and also from the records in the oldest Tamil literature of the Sangam period they appear to be one of the most ancient and primitive inhabitants now living in India having been pushed by the intrusion of more advanced people into their present habitats, where safety and shelter were found against increasing pressure.

Beginning from the north-east the Chenchus occupy the area of the Nallaimallais hills across the Krishna and into the AP State. Along the western Ghats from the Koraga of South Kanara, the Yeruvas and the Todas living in the lower slopes of Coorg hills; the Irulas, Paniyans and Kurumbas of Wynaad, and stretching almost to Kaniya Kumari along the ranges of Cochin and Travancore and sheltered in the isolation of the forest are found the most primitive of Indian aboriginal such as Kadars, Kanikkars, Malvadan, Malakurvan, with many of their original traits still preserved. 

(d) In addition to these three major zones there is a fourth small and isolated zone consisting of Andamans and Nicobar Islands. The main tribes  living in this zone are the Jarawa, Onge, North Sentineless, the Andmanese and the Nicobarese,though separated from the main body of India's aboriginal tribes are ethnically connected with them. 

(ii) Linguistic Affiliation

Linguistically these tribes may be divided into a number of groups based on their affiliation to the various families of languages :

(a) The Austro-Asiatic linguistic branch under which come the Kol or Munda speeches of the Central and Eastern India, Khasi of Assam. Nicobarese in the Nicobar Islands.

Santali found in Bihar,Jharkhand, Orissa, West Bengal and Assam; Mundari; Ho; Kharia ; Bhumij , Garo ; Khasi and few other which  belong to Bihar and Assam. The language of Korku is spoken in M. P. and Berar; while Savana (Saora) and Gadaba are spoken in Orissa. Outside the Kol group, there is the language of Nicobarese in the Nicobar Islands.

(b) The Dravidian Linguistic Group is popular in Central and Southern India. It is spoken by Gonds Gondi in M. P.,Chattisgarh, AP States ; Khondh or Khond in Orissa ; Kui ; the Kurukh or Oraon in Bihar,Jharkhand and Orissa ; Mai to in Rajmahal hills in Bihar. The other tribes under this group are : Maler, Polia, Saora, Koya, Paniyan, Chenchu, Irulas, Kadar, Malser and Malakurwan.

(c) The Tibeto-Chinese (Sino-Tibetan) family includes the tribal languages of various people belonging to the Mongoloid element and found along the southern  slopes of the Himalayas, from northern Punjab to Bhutan and also in northern and eastern Bengal and in Assam, e.g., the Nagas, the Kuki, the Abhors, the Dafla, the Miris, the Khasi and the Mikirs.

(iii) Occupational Classification

The tribes of India not only speak different languages, but also have distinctive economy of their own. They live in different economic stages ranging from food gathering and hunting through shifting cultivation to settled plough cultivation, e.g., the Birhot, Kharia, Korua and Hill Maraia,Malapantaram, Kadar, the Paniyan, etc. The Paliyan depend on food-gathering and hunting for their livelihood. The Baiga, Pauri (hill) Bhuiyan, Jhuang Maria, Khond, Naga and Kutia Kandh are shifting cultivators.

The Munda, Bhils, Baiga, Gond, Majhwar,Kharwar and Ho Santal and Oraon depend primarily on permanent plough cultivation for their living. The Naga tribes have developed a system of terraced cultivation with elaborate means of irrigation by aqueducts.

Dr. Hutton classified these tribes into three groups : (i) Primitive tribes collecting forest produce, (ii) Primitive tribes, pastoral and (iii) tribes practicing settled agriculture(who keep poultry, rattle, know weaving, spinning,pottery and terraced farming) , hunting, fishing and industries.

(iv) Physical Characteristics 

(a)Physically the tribes of the north-east frontier are Mongoloid with light skin colour, straight and -dark hair and flat nose and prominent cheek bones. Majority of them are of medium stature with long heads, scanty hair growth on body and face and almond-shaped eyes. All these tribes, including the women, are muscular with great development of calf-muscles. They are great mountaineers and carry considerable amount of loads to high altitudes. They are healthy, hard-working and of independent spirit and their life is well balanced with democratic councils and considerable stress on personal liberty of thought and action. They have childlike simplicity and are very honest but not trained for sustained labour and concentration of mind. This type is represented by the Nagas, semi-Nagas, Chakmas, Mughs, and Lepchas.

(b) In the central zone the Negrito strain is most marked. The tribes very largely conform to the pattern of what are called the "Austroloid characters." Physically they are from short to medium stature, dark skinned with long head, and generally possessing curly but not frizzly hairs, road and flat nose but depressed at the root, fleshy everted lips. They are strong, muscular and well-built. This type is represented by the tribes like the Chenchus, Kurumbas, the Yeruvas, Malayans, Munda, Kols, Santhals and the Bhils.

(c) In the southern zone there is an undoubted Negrito strain, although at present greatly submerged, but still surviving among some of the more primitive and isolated of these tribes such as the Kadars of Perambiculam, hills of Cochin,and the Irulas and Panyans of the Wynaad. Physically they are of short to medium stature, of deep chocolate brown skin colour, small head, bulbous forehead, smooth brow- ridges and feeble chins.
The face is short and protruding and the nose flat and broad and the lips are thick and everted, the head shape is long, hair fine and of wooly nature and the body well developed.

At the present time they are greatly intermixed and it is only in the extreme interior that more archaic types are to be found.

Note : Tribes in India 

1.According to Risley's Classification - Dravidian and Mongoloid Groups
2.According to Guha Classification - Negrito,Proto-Australoid,Mongoloids(Paleo and Tibeto)

3.According to Sarkar's Classification-Australoid,Mundari speaking,Far-Eastern,Mongoloid

(v) Classification according to culture-contact

There are four main cultural divisions among the aboriginals. The first two classes consist of the comparatively small block of real primitives living in the hills. Their religion is characteristic and alive ; their tribal organisation is unimpaired ; their artistic and choreographic traditions are unbroken; their mythology still vitalizes the healthy organism of tribal life. Geographical conditions have largely protected them from the debasing contacts of the plains".

The wilder aboriginals have to be sub-divided into two sections :

(a) the first class in the most primitive and simple stage of all is comprised of Hill Marias of Chattisgarh State, the Juangs of Keonjhar and Pal-Labara, the Gadabas and Bondos of Orissa, the Baigas, andaria and Kawaedha, many of smaller communities and more isolated villages even of comparatively sophisticated tribes.

This group has the following characteristics :

(i) Its members live a largely communal life like those of the Hill Marias, Hill Baigas and the Juangs
(ii) Economically they share one another ;
(iii) Their life still centres round a peculiar form of agriculture (Jhum) and
(iv) They are shy of strangers but among themselves honest, simple and innocent. Crime is rare and women virtuous.

(b) The second class of aboriginals live in country equally remote and they are equally attached to their solitude and to their ancient traditions but they have begun to change in many ways. The important tribes of their class are Bison-horn Marias or the Bhomia and Binjhwar and Baigas. 

Their chief characteristics are :(i) Their village life has become individualistic, (ii) They no longer share things with one another, (iii) Axe-cultivation is more a habit rather than a part of their life ; (iv) They are more accustomed to outside life and are generally less simple and honest than the above class.

(c) The third class of aboriginals is the most numerous. It consists of all those who under the influence of external contact have begun to lose their stronghold on tribal culture, religion and social organisation.

(d) The fourth class, which consists of the old aristocracy of the country represented today by the great Bhil, Naga chieftains, the Gond Rajas, a few Bin jh war and Bhiuya landlords, Korku noblemen, wealthy Santhal and Utaon leaders and some highly cultured Mundas. These retain the old tribal name and their clan and totem rules and observe elements of tribal religion though they generally adopt the full Hindu faith and live in modern style.

Process of Transformation of Tribal Cultures

The process through which the tribal cultures are usually transformed or modified may be either :

(i) simple adoption, which means the acquisition of technical skill, adoption of tools, implements, ideas, customs and rites by one social group from another, e.g. the Warli of Thana district is yet simple and unostentatious, put on a loin cloth without anything on his head but his colleague in the south being in much contact with the Kolis puts on a shirt, dhoti and turban after the latter's fashion. Similar taking over of the elements of material culture from neighbouring groups is found in all tribes today especially the Bhils, the Gonds and the Santhals, etc.

(ii) Acculturation is the process of change due to contacts with other people. It involves acceptance and adoption. A tribe in contact with civilization may accept some of the traits of their neighbours such as the employment of Hindu priest in indigenous ceremonies and festivals among some of the tribes in Bihar is an example of simple acceptance. Similarly Munda tribes have accepted some of the cultural traits from their neighbours, while Raj ban sis have shown an adaptation to Hindu culture. The Lambadis of the Deccan have taken to agriculture, they have adopted the dress of their neighbours and tribe is divided into sections based on occupations. Similar adaptation is found among certain sections of the Gonds, the Raj Gonds and the Navgharia Gonds and the Bhils.

(iii) Assimilation, by a gradual drift to Hinduism. When certain members of a primitive tribe move down into the plains they tend to become assimilated in contrast to other members who remain behind. The evidence of assimilation in many cases is apparent. Certain Santhals of Bengal give distinctly Hindu names to their children, practise child-marriage before the age of 7, revere the Tulsi plant, abstain from beef, cleanse "their living quarters with cowdung, decline food cooked by Muslims, cremate their dead and place the vermillion mark and the iron bangle upon their wives."

Effects of Culture Contacts

The effects of such contacts have been very far-reaching on the life of the aboriginals. Contacts with civilisation have undermined social solidarity, invaded tribal security, introduced discomforts, diseases and vices. The results may be detailed as below :

(i) The rapid opening up of the means of communications has resulted more in conflict than in useful contact not necessarily a conflict of arms but of culture and material interest. Says Dr. Hutton, "Attempts to develop minerals, forests or land for intensive cultivation can only be made at the expense of the tribes whose isolation is thus invaded : tribal customs which regulate the ownership or transfer of land are normally superseded by a Code in the application of which the tribe is deprived of its property, generally in the name of law, either by alienation to foreigners or by transferring the trusteeship of a tribal chief into absolute ownership of a kind foreign to the customs of a tribe. The complicated system of administration of justice has tended to impair the natural truthfulness and honesty of the people and social solidarity of the tribes has weakened the authority of the social heads and the respect they formerly commanded." In spite of the best intentions a lot of injustice is done to the aboriginals by the Judges and Magistrates and the police officers of all grades owing to their ignorance of customs and mentality of the aboriginal tribes they have to deal with.

(ii) The introduction of the outstill system in tribal area in mines and industrial centres, where they frequent for employment, has led to an increase in drunkenness and immorality. "The temptation of distilary liquor", wrote Shri S. C. Roy, "introduced by the Government in some aboriginal areas is another evil that is working havoc, economically, morally and physically

(iii) One of the most important effects of contacts has been the spread of diseases in tribal areas. Mills has shown, while writing about the effects on some primitive tribes of Assam of contact with civilization, "That improved communications while they have immensely facilitated internal trade, have undoubtedly spread disease; not only have specific diseases such as venereal diseases and T. B. been introduced but epidemics spread more quickly. The opening of the road to Manipur has led to an increase in prostitution.'' Emigration of labour from tribal areas to plantations and factories where conditions are not favourable to settlement has been the main source for the spread of epidemic diseases. The lure of free life unhampered by social control pulls women to plantations and factories where they are tempted to a corrupt life and the large incidence of V. D. like syphilis and diabetes, gonnorohea, etc., among the labourers is directly traceable to such indiscriminate mixing of the sexes. Missionaries and the philanthrophic agencies have caused T. B., and other contact diseases to spread in tribal areas through indiscretion, as for example, doling out second hand clothes and apparels collected from the dead or diseased population, which are a foci of infection.

(iv) Urban contacts have everywhere disorganised primitive social life. The village has ceased to be living community; it is now an aggregate of isolated units. Old myths are being forgotten and the old gods neglected. Many of the traditional dances which used to provide recreation to the youths of both sexes, translate joys and sorrows are being abandoned and village politics, rivalry and social disputes are replacing their old-time recreation. The effects of this transfer of interests have already been evident in the high incidence of imported diseases, poor physique, inferiority complex and a bitter Antagonism against advanced groups in the neighbourhood.

(v) A large number of tribes have been living on hunting and collection of jungle products supplemented by Jhum cultivation. The effects of Jhum cultivation have led to strict rules regarding denudation of forests and today many of the tribes (who lived by shifting cultivation) have come down to the plains though most have not succeeded in adapting themselves to other kinds of agriculture found in the plains. This is mostly
due to tribal inertia, shyness of the aborigines, apathy of administration and as Dr. Hutton says, may be due to ignorance of appropriate magico- religious ceremonial necessary for other types of farming."

(vi) Many tribes have failed to maintain their tribal structures and have either been assimilated with more vital stock or have withdrawn themselves from contacts as a defensive measure. The Andamanese, Korwas, Todas and Chenchus are on evil days and are preparing themselves for exit. Some other tribes have left their tribal moorings and have settled in the neighbourhood of higher cultural groups whom they serve. Today they have developed some sort of interdependence. The Gond tribe of M. P. and Bhils of southern-eastern Rajasthan may be taken as an example.

(vii) The nomadic tribes who secured their livelihood by catering to the periodical requirements of settled communities as the Marwaris or the Lakhota supplying agricultural implements to the latter or repairing their indigenous tools and utensils, the Nats supplying crude nostrums for the restoration of the lost manhood, the Kanjars providing amusements, acrobatics and dances for the village communities, find it difficult to continue their customary life and have enlisted themselves into the ranks of criminal tribes whose attention to the rural communities is a perpetual concern of the administration.

(viii) Lastly, the itinerant seller of goods and trinkets, the moneylender, the licensee of excise shops, collectors of lac, honey and other forest produce are mostly aliens in culture and language. They have settled in tribal areas and have taken advantage of the gradual drift of tribal society from a moneyless economy to one in which exchange depends on the circulation of money. The implications of money economy are better understood by them and thus they have succeeded in solidly entrenching themselves in tribal areas and today they are a source of great discomfort to the tribal people. In many areas the land has passed from the aborigines to the moneylenders and sahukars who make the very people work for them. 

A Thinking Man

Socrates - A Great Thinker

Relevance of  his Ideas 

1. They’ve Never Been Rendered Obsolete

For starters, it’s crucial to note that, unlike many other intellectual disciplines of the ancient Greek period such as, say, ancient Greek astronomy, Socrates’ philosophies remain just as pertinent as the day they were conceived (or at least the day they were recorded by his student Plato).Socrates and his disciples’ theories are a crucial foundation of modern Western philosophical thought – all others since have basically been constructed upon them.

2. He Taught Us to Question Everything

“The highest form of Human Excellence is to question oneself and others,” Socrates once said. His dialectic method of inquiry – breaking a subject down into a dialogue between two or more people with differing views, both mutually in search of the same truth – taught us to assume nothing and to scrutinize everything, and gave us a system by which to do it. It remains a key element of scientific study today – beginning with a hypothesis and then distilling it until a definitive conclusion is reached.

3. He Taught Us That Life is Worthless Without Happiness

Socrates asked – what’s the point in battleships and city walls, unless the people building them and protected by them are happy?

If we aren’t in pursuit of happiness and understanding in our daily lives, then we’re basically akin to ants toiling at an ant-hill. Sure, we go about our practical tasks instinctually. But we also need to step back and develop an awareness of the world, and form a conscious relationship with our existence.

Socrates asked – what’s the point in battleships and city walls, unless the people building them and protected by them are happy? The same remains true today – unless we’re mindful of spiritual well-being in our daily toil, we’re little better off than insects. As he famously put it: “The unexamined life is not a life worth living for a human being.”

Socrates believed that the universal aspiration for all men should be was virtue. However, virtue must be known before it can be desired and achieved, which requires attention and commitment. This aspiration to a higher state, ideal and disposition could only be achieved by constant self improvement, the pursuit of which was Socrates’ sole goal in life. In the Apology, Socrates proves his commitment to the virtuous improvement of Athenians by referring to his negligence of his private concerns to concentrate on his divinely bestowed task of advising in people publicly or privately to aim to virtue. As a result of his diligent performance in his duty, he was on trial charged with leading astray the youth. The fruits of his labors were many powerful enemies and his own poverty. According to Socrates, Examination of life is aspiring to improvement of the soul, absolute honesty, desire for knowledge, discernment of the known and the unknown (wisdom) and correct priority in attending to matters .

4. He Taught Us to Ask if There’s Such a Thing as a Just War

“It is better to suffer wrong than to do wrong,” believed Socrates. As a soldier in the Greek army during the Peloponnesian War, one who distinguished himself several times for his bravery, Socrates saw enough of military conflict to understand first hand the suffering and devastation it caused.

His was one of the first voices in history to ponder whether there really is such a thing as a just war – a war for a cause so true it was worth bloodshed on a mass scale.

5. He Advocated True Freedom of Speech

Athens was one of the first polities in the world to allow freedom of speech –all from lowly shoemakers and merchants to rich nobles were allowed to address the Athenian Assembly. Yet they had to speak with aidos – “a sense of shame, a ‘knowing-your-placeness’” as Hughes describes it in The Hemlock Cup.

Socrates rebelled against this convention, by developing a system of true free-speech through his dialogue. Athens was uneasy was this, but he spoke his mind anyway (and ultimately paid the price for it). He was way ahead of his time in standing-up for the free expression of ideas – something that remains a cornerstone of democratic society today.

6. He Invented Philosophical Ethics

“What is the right way to live?” pondered Socrates. He was one of the very first philosophers in history to encourage scholars and common citizens to turn their attention from the outside world to the condition of humankind – and to ask a simple, honest and undoubtedly critical question: what is right and what is wrong? With it, he effectively created philosophical ethics – the debate between good and evil – which has shaped moral and legal codes throughout the Western world.

7. He Was a Champion of Human Virtue

Shaped probably by some of the terrible sights he witnessed on the battlefields at Potidaea, Amphipolis and Delium during his military service, Socrates developed a notion of human virtue at odds with the then-prevailing attitude of lex talionis – an eye for an eye. He believed in a mixture of temperance, justice, piety and courage – all of which led ultimately to wisdom. He had seen so much bad, he wanted to search for something good.

Socrates was a firm believer in friendship and community, and common threads between all of mankind. “Virtue,” he said, “is the most valuable of all possessions.” We can always benefit from being a bit nicer to each other.

8. He Warned Us of the Follies of Materialism

Socrates typically cut a pretty down-trodden figure when he wandered the streets of Athens – he never wore shoes, and sported the same tattered woolen cloak all year round. He was mocked for it by his contemporaries, but he didn’t care – his humble attire was a physical reflection of his belief that the pursuit of plenty could only bring mindless materialism.

He even had the gall to suggest to Athenians that they might be better themselves pursuing well-being rather than wealth – words that ring truer than ever in consumerist modern society.

9. He Taught Us the Value of Civil Disobedience

Socrates was known as the “gadfly” of the Greek state – he saw it as his responsibility to sting the government into action in areas where it could improve its conduct. He wasn’t frightened to publicly speak his mind on the subject of bad governance, no matter the cost. One illustrative quote goes: “It seems strange enough to me that a herdsman who lets his cattle decrease and go to the bad should not admit that he is a poor cowherd; but stranger still that a statesman when he causes the citizens to decrease and go to the bad, should feel no shame nor think himself a poor statesman.”

As a famous modern advocate of civil disobedience Martin Luther King put it in a letter from an Alabama Prison in 1963: “Just as Socrates felt that it was necessary to create a tension in the mind so that individuals could rise from the bondage of myths and half-truths… so we must see the need for non-violent gadflies to create the kind of tension in society that will help men rise from the dark depths of prejudice and racism.”

10. He Taught Us to Stand Up For What We Believe

Socrates lived and breathed his philosophies – however much they were scorned, ridiculed, laughed at or feared – and he ultimately died by them. The state swatted its gadfly, by trying him as a “corrupter of youth” and forcing him to commit suicide by poisoning himself.

He could have renounced his beliefs, and made a groveling defence during his trial – but he chose instead to stand tall to the last and accept his punishment, even turning down an opportunity to escape. There was undoubtedly a degree of recklessness and martyrdom to Socrates death, but the lesson it teaches us about standing up for what we believe in to the very end remains powerful and enduring.

Socrates’ criticism of democracy

Socrates’ analysis of the hatred he has incurred is one part of a larger theme that he dwells on throughout his speech. Athens is a democracy, a city in which the many are the dominant power in politics, and it can therefore be expected to have all the vices of the many. Because most people hate to be tested in argument, they will always take action of some sort against those who provoke them with questions. But that is not the only accusation Socrates brings forward against his city and its politics. He tells his democratic audience that he was right to have withdrawn from political life, because a good person who fights for justice in a democracy will be killed. In his cross-examination of Meletus, he insists that only a few people can acquire the knowledge necessary for improving the young of any species, and that the many will inevitably do a poor job. He criticizes the Assembly for its illegal actions and the Athenian courts for the ease with which matters of justice are distorted by emotional pleading. Socrates implies that the very nature of democracy makes it a corrupt political system. Bitter experience has taught him that most people rest content with a superficial understanding of the most urgent human questions. When they are given great power, their shallowness inevitably leads to injustice.

If the majority of the people are too uninformed, lackadaisical, or apathetic to make the democratic process rational and effective, then they just reveal their inherent nature It is not an upper class that keeps the demos unenlightened, but it is the people's own disposition that makes them eschew enlightenment, and thus dependent on some sort of rulers. If people did not naturally have the disposition they display in a dysfunctional democracy, other people would not be able to exploit and mislead them the way they do. (Plato)

Development as Freedom

Poverty As Capability Deprivation

Women's Agency and Social Change