Cell Division - Basics

What is Cell Division ?

Cell division is the process by which a parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells.Upon completion of the process, each daughter cell contains the same genetic material as the original cell and roughly half of its cytoplasm. Among prokaryotes, cell division occurs by simple fission. Among eukaryotes, the cell nucleus divides first, and then a new cell membrane is formed between the nuclei to form the new cell. Cell division is used as a means of reproduction in organisms that reproduce asexually, as by fission or spore formation, and sexually reproducing organisms form gametes through cell division. Cell division is also the source of tissue growth and repair in multicellular organisms. The two types of cell division in eukaryotic organisms are mitosis and meiosis.


Why is cell division necessary ?

One of the most important characteristics of living being is its ability to reproduce. Growth involves increase in the size of organisms and increase in the number of cells. Cell division is the process through which this is achieved. The new cells arise from pre existing cells only through the process of cell division.

In unicellular organisms too cell division is a means of reproduction and population growth. Two or more daughter cells are produced by cell division. Multi-cellular organisms are made up of millions of cells. For example,there are 26 billion cells in a newborn baby and 50 trillion cells in an adult. In all multicellular organisms, life starts from a single cell i.e., zygote. Zygote is the product of union of male and female gametes. Zygote divides and re-divides to produce a complex multicellular organization. After each division, there is a gap period in which cells take nutrients from their surroundings and convert them into the living substance, protoplasm. The cells in plants divide throughout the life of the plant. However, in animals, cell division stops after a certain age, but takes place when cell division is required to replenish damaged cells. Growth and development result from this action.

Types of Cell Division : 

Cells divide by three different methods – amitosis, mitosis and meiosis. In amitosis, spindle fibers are not formed. Mitosis is the type of cell division which takes place in somatic (body) or vegetative cells. It takes place during growth and asexual reproduction of plants and animals. It is also known as somatic (soma means vegetative body) cell division. Meiosis is the type of cell which takes place in reproductive found in gonads of organisms. This process can be observed during gametogenesis i.e., formation of gametes (eggs and sperms).

What happens during Cell Division ? 

A cell has broadly two parts: nucleus and cytoplasm. In cell division both parts divide successively. The division of nucleus is called nuclear division or karyokinesis (karyon means nucleus). This is followed by the division of cytoplasm which is known as cytokinesis. The processes of mitosis and meiosis are complicated and are studied in different steps.

What is Cell Cycle ? 

The cell cycle is the life cycle of a dividing cell.It is the series of events involving the growth, replication, and division of a eukaryotic cell. It includes Interphase and the M phase or Mitotic phase (mitosis and cytokinesis).The sequence of events within the cell between mitotic (cell) divisions. The cell cycle is conventionally divided into five phases: G0 (the gap); G1, (the first gap or growth phase); S (the synthesis phase, during which the DNA is synthesized and replicated); G2 (the second gap or growth phase); and M (mitosis). Cells that are not destined to divide again are considered to be in the G0 phase. The transition from G0 to G1 is thought to commit the cell to completing the cell cycle by dividing.

Details : Howard and Pelc divided the cell cycle into four intervals: G1, G2, and mitosis. G refers to gap and S refers to synthesis.in the G1 (gap one) period, a cell has to make a critical decision as to whether it should divide or remain as such. If a cell has passed the checkpoint of G1, it enters a phase of DNA duplication. This phase is called S phase. The mass of DNA is doubled upon the completion of S phase. The next phase is G2 phase. In this phase RNA synthesis occurs, which in turn leads to synthesis of proteins needed during mitosis. After the completion of G2 phase, the cell enters the mitotic phase marked by prophase. G1, S, and G2 are included within the interphase.

Regulation of Media in India – A brief overview

Media in India is mostly self-regulated. The existing bodies for regulation of media such as the Press Council of India which is a statutory body and the News Broadcasting Standards Authority, a self-regulatory organization, issue standards which are more in the nature of guidelines. Recently, the Chairman of the Press Council of India, former Justice of the Supreme Court, Mr. M. Katju, has argued that television and radio need to be brought within the scope of the Press Council of India or a similar regulatory body. We discuss the present model of regulation of different forms of media.

What is the Press Council of India (PCI)?

The PCI was established under the PCI Act of 1978 for the purpose of preserving the freedom of the press and of maintaining and improving the standards of newspapers and news agencies in India.

What is the composition of the PCI and who appoints the members?

The PCI consists of a chairman and 28 other members. The Chairman is selected by the Speaker of the Lok Sabha, the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha and a member elected by the PCI.

The members consist of members of the three Lok Sabha members, two members of the Rajya Sabha , six editors of newspapers, seven working journalists other than editors of newspapers, six persons in the business of managing newspapers, one person who is engaged in the business of managing news agencies, and three persons with special knowledge of public life.

What are its functions?

The functions of the PCI include among others (i) helping newspapers maintain their independence; (ii) build a code of conduct for journalists and news agencies; (iii) help maintain “high standards of public taste” and foster responsibility among citizens; and (iv) review developments likely to restrict flow of news.

 What are its powers?

The PCI has the power to receive complaints of violation of the journalistic ethics, or professional misconduct by an editor or journalist. The PCI is responsible for enquiring in to complaints received. It may summon witnesses and take evidence under oath, demand copies of public records to be submitted, even issue warnings and admonish the newspaper, news agency, editor or journalist. It can even require any newspaper to publish details of the inquiry. Decisions of the PCI are final and cannot be appealed before a court of law.

What are the limitations on the powers of the PCI?

The powers of the PCI are restricted in two ways. (1) The PCI has limited powers of enforcing the guidelines issued. It cannot penalize newspapers, news agencies, editors and journalists for violation of the guidelines. (2) The PCI only overviews the functioning of press media. That is, it can enforce standards upon newspapers, journals, magazines and other forms of print media. It does not have the power to review the functioning of the electronic media like radio, television and internet media.

Are there other bodies that review television or radio?

For screening films including short films, documentaries, television shows and advertisements in theaters or broadcasting via television the Central Board of Film Certification (CBFC) sanction is required. The role of the CBFC is limited to controlling content of movies and television shows, etc. Unlike the PCI, it does not have the power to issue guidelines in relation to standards of news and journalistic conduct.

Program and Advertisement Codes for regulating content broadcast on the television, are issued under the Cable Television Networks (Regulation) Act, 1995. The District magistrate can seize the equipment of the cable operator in case he broadcasts programs that violate these Codes.

Certain standards have been prescribed for content accessible over the internet under the IT Rules 2011. However, a regulatory body such as the PCI or the CBFC does not exist. Complaints are addressed to the internet service provider or the host.

Radio Channels have to follow the same Programme and Advertisement Code as followed by All India Radio. Private television and radio channels have to conform to conditions which are part of license agreements. These include standards for broadcast of content. Non-compliance may lead to suspension or revocation of license.

Is there a process of self regulation by television channels?

Today news channels are governed by mechanisms of self-regulation. One such mechanism has been created by the News Broadcasters Association. The NBA has devised a Code of Ethics to regulate television content. The News Broadcasting Standards Authority (NBSA), of the NBA, is empowered to warn, admonish, censure, express disapproval and fine the broadcaster a sum upto Rs. 1 lakh for violation of the Code. Another such organization is the Broadcast Editors’ Association.

The Advertising Standards Council of India has also drawn up guidelines on content of advertisements.

These groups govern through agreements and do not have any statutory powers.

Is the government proposing to create a regulatory agency for television broadcasters?

In 2006 the government had prepared a Draft Broadcasting Services Regulation Bill, 2006. The Bill made it mandatory to seek license for broadcasting any television or radio channel or program. It also provides standards for regulation of content. It is the duty of the body to ensure compliance with guidelines issued under the Bill.

Statistical Profile of Scheduled Tribes of India

Statistical Data (2010)

The Union General Budget 2012-2013 - Highlights

• Budget identifies five objectives relating to growth recovery, private investment, supply bottlenecks, malnutrition and governance matters

• GDP growth to be 7.6 per cent (+ 0.25 percent) during 2012-13

• Amendment to the FRBM Act proposed as part of Finance Bill. New concepts of “Effective Revenue Deficit” and “Medium Term Expenditure Framework” introduced

• Central subsidies to be kept under 2 per cent of GDP; to be further brought down to 1.75 per cent of GDP over the next 3 years.

• Proposed: Mobile based fertilizer management system; LPG transparency portal; scaling up and rolling out of Aadhar enabled payment for government schemes in at least 50 districts.

• Rs. 30,000 crore to be raised through disinvestment

• Efforts to reach broadbased consensus on FDI in multi-brand retail

• Rajiv Gandhi Equity Saving Scheme: to allow income tax deduction to retail investors on investing in equities

• Rs. 15,888 crore to be provided for capitalization of public sector banks and financial institutions

• A central “Know Your Customer” depository to be developed

• Swabhimaan: remaining habitations to be covered; to be extended to more habitations; ultra small branches to be set up in Swabhimaan habitations

• Investment in 12th Plan in infrastructure to go uptoRs. 50,00,000 crore; half of this is expected from private sector

• Tax Free Bonds of Rs. 60,000 crore to be allowed for financial infrastructure projects

• Allocation of Road Transport and Highways Ministry enhanced by 14 per cent to Rs. 25,360 crore

• Financial package of Rs. 3,884 crore for waiver of loans to handloom weavers and their cooperative societies; mega handloom clusters in Andhra, Jharkhand; weaver service centres in Mizoram, Nagaland and Jharkhand ; powerloom mega cluster in Maharashtra; Rs. 500 crore pilot schemes for geo-textiles in North-Eastern region

• Rs. 5,000 crore India Opportunities Venture Fund to help small enterprises

• Allocation to agriculture enhanced; RKVY gets Rs. 9,217 crore; BGREI gets Rs. 1,000 crore; Rs.2242 crore project to improve dairy productivity; Rs. 500 crore for coastal aquaculture

• Various other agricultural activities merged into 5 missions

• Target for agricultural credit raised to Rs. 5,75,000 crore

• Interest subvention for short-term crop loans to farmers at 7 per cent interest continues; additional 3 per cent for prompt paying farmers

• Rs. 200 crore for awards to incentivise agricultural research

• Provisions under rural housing fund increased to Rs. 4,000 crore from Rs. 3,000 crore

• Interest subvention of 1 percent on housing loans uptoRs. 15 lakh extended for one more year

• AIBP allocation raised by 13 per cent to Rs. 14,242 crore

• National Mission on Food Processing to be started in cooperation with State Governments

• Scheduled Caste Sub Plan allocation increases by 18 per cent to Rs. 37,113 crore; Tribal Sub Plan by 17.6 per cent to Rs. 21,710 crore

• Multi-sectoralprogramme to address maternal and child malnutrition in 200 high burden districts

• 58 per cent rise in allocation to ICDS, at Rs. 15,850 crore

• Rural drinking water and sanitation gets 27 per cent rise in allocation to Rs. 14,000 crore; PMGSY gets 20 per cent rise to Rs. 24,000 crore

• Projects covering length of 8800 km to be awarded under NHDP against 7,300 km during 2011-12

• RTE-SSA gets Rs. 25,555 crore allocation, showing an increase of 21 per cent; 6000 schools to be set up at block level as model schools in the 12th Plan; Credit Guarantee Fund to be set up for better flow of credit to students

• National Urban Health Mission is being launched

• 34 per cent increase in allocation to National Rural Livelihood Mission, to Rs. 3915 crore

• Rs. 1000 crore allocated for National Skill Development Fund

• Bharat Livelihood Foundation to be established to support livelihood interventions particularly in tribal areas

• Widow pension and disability pension raised from Rs. 200 to Rs. 300 per month

• Grant on death of primary breadwinner of a BPL family in the age group 18-64 years doubled to Rs. 20,000

• Defence services get Rs. 193407 crore; any further requirement to be met

• 4000 residential quarters to be constructed for Central Armed Police Forces

• UID-Aadhar to get adequate funds for enrolment of 40 crore persons, in addition to the 20 crore persons already enrolled

• White Paper on Black Money to be laid in the current session of Parliament

• Tax proposals mark progress in the direction of movement towards DTC and GST

• Income tax exemption limit raised from Rs.1,80,000 to Rs.2,00,000; upper limit of 20 per cent tax slab raised from Rs.8 lakh to Rs.10 lakh

• Interest from savings bank accounts deductible upto Rs.10,000; deduction of upto Rs.5,000 for preventive health check-up

• Senior citizens without business income exempt from advance tax

• Investment linked deduction of capital expenditure enhanced for certain businesses; new sectors eligible for investment linked deduction

• Turnover limit for compulsory tax audit for SMEs raised from Rs.60 lakh to Rs.1 crore

• STT on cash delivery reduced by 25 per cent to 0.1%

• General Anti Avoidance Rule being introduced to counter aggressive tax avoidance

• A number of measures proposed to deter generation and use of unaccounted money

• All services to attract service tax except those in the negative list

• Central Excise and Service Tax being harmonized

• Standard rate of excise duty raised from 10 per cent to 12 per cent; service tax rates raised from 10 per cent to 12 per cent; no change in peak customs duty of 10 per cent on non-agricultural goods

• Relief in indirect taxes to sectors under stress; agriculture, infrastructure, mining, railways, roads, civil aviation, manufacturing, health and nutrition, and environment get duty relief

• Certain cigarettes and bidis attract higher excise duty; large cars attract higher customs duty

• Excise imposed on unbranded jewellery also; measures to minimize impact on small artisans and goldsmiths; branded silver jewellery exempted from excise duty

• Net gain of Rs.41,440 crore due to taxation proposals

• Total expenditure budgeted at Rs. 14,90,925 crore; plan expenditure at Rs. 5,21,025 crore – 18 per cent higher than 2011-12 budget; non plan expenditure at Rs. 9,69,900 crore

• Fiscal deficit targeted at 5.1 per cent of GDP, as against 5.9 per cent in revised estimates for 2011-12

• Central Government debt at 45.5 per cent of GDP as compared to Thirteenth Finance Commission target of 50.5 per cent

• Medium-term Expenditure Framework Statement to be introduced; will set forth 3-year rolling target for expenditure indicators

Details : 

Budget 2012-2013

Budget 2

General Anti Avoidance Rules (GAAR)

The issue of the General Anti Avoidance Rule (GAAR) has dominated the news recently and there are fears that GAAR will discourage foreign investment in India. However, tax avoidance can hinder public finance objectives and it is in this context GAAR was introduced in this year’s Budget. Last week, the Finance Minister pushed back the implementation of GAAR by a year.

What is GAAR?

GAAR was first introduced in the Direct Taxes Code Bill 2010. The original proposal gave the Commissioner of Income Tax the authority to declare any arrangement or transaction by a taxpayer as ‘impermissible’ if he believed the main purpose of the arrangement was to obtain a tax benefit. The 2012-13 Finance Bill (Bill), that was passed by Parliament yesterday, defines ‘impermissible avoidance arrangements’ as an arrangement that satisfies one of four tests. Under these tests, an agreement would be an ‘impermissible avoidance arrangement’ if it (i) creates rights and obligations not normally created between parties dealing at arm’s length, (ii) results in misuse or abuse of provisions of tax laws, (iii) is carried out in a way not normally employed for bona fide purpose or (iv) lacks commercial substance.

As per the Bill, arrangements which lack commercial substance could involve round trip financing, an accommodating party and elements that have the effect of offsetting or cancelling each other. A transaction that disguises the value, location, source, ownership or control of funds would also be deemed to lack commercial substance.

The Bill as introduced also presumed that obtaining a tax benefit was the main purpose of an arrangement unless the taxpayer could prove otherwise.

Why?

GAAR was introduced to address tax avoidance and ensure that those in different tax brackets are taxed the correct amount. In many instances of tax avoidance, arrangements may take place with the sole intention of gaining a tax advantage while complying with the law. This is when the doctrine of ‘substance over form’ may apply. ‘Substance over form’ is where real intention of parties and the purpose of an arrangement is taken into account rather than just the nomenclature of the arrangement. Many countries, like Canada and South Africa, have codified the doctrine of ‘substance over form’ through a GAAR – type ruling.GAAR enables tax authorities to declare any arrangement entered into by taxpayer as an impermissible avoidance agreement.

Issues with GAAR

A common criticism of GAAR is that it provides discretion and authority to the tax administration which can be misused. The Standing Committee responded to GAAR in their report on the Direct Taxes Code Bill in March, 2012. They suggested that the provisions should ensure that taxpayers entering genuinely valid arrangements are not harassed. They recommended that the onus should be on tax authorities, not the taxpayer, to prove tax avoidance. In addition, the committee suggested an independent body to act as the approving panel to ensure impartiality. They also recommended that the assessing officer be designated in the code to reduce harassment and unwarranted litigation.

GAAR Amendments

On May 8, 2012 the Finance Minister amended the GAAR provisions following the Standing Committee’s recommendations. The main change was to delay the implementation of GAAR by a year to “provide more time to both taxpayers and the tax administration to address all related issues”. GAAR will now apply on income earned in 2013-14 and thereafter. In addition, the Finance Minister removed the burden upon the taxpayer to prove that the main purpose of an alleged impermissible arrangement was not to obtain tax benefit. These amendments were approved with the passing of the Bill.

In his speech, the Finance Minister stated that a Committee had also been formed under the Chairmanship of the Director General of Income Tax. The Committee will suggest rules, guidelines and safeguards for implementation of GAAR. The Committee is expected to submit its recommendations by May 31, 2012 after holding discussions with various stakeholders in the debate.

State of Indian Agriculture 2011-12

Agriculture is a critical sector of the Indian economy. Though its contribution to the overall Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the country has fallen from about 30 percent in 1990-91 to less than 15 percent in 2011-12, a trend that is expected in the development process of any economy, agriculture yet forms the backbone of development. An average Indian still spends almost half of his/her total expenditure on food, while roughly half of India’s work force is still engaged in agriculture for its livelihood. Being both a source of livelihood and food security for a vast majority of low income, poor and vulnerable sections of society, its performance assumes greater significance in view of the proposed National Food Security Bill and the ongoing Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) scheme.

The agriculture sector in India has undergone significant structural changes in the form of decrease in share of GDP from 30 percent in 1990-91 to 14.5 percent in 2010-11 indicating a shift from the traditional agrarian economy towards a service dominated one. This decrease in agriculture’s contribution to GDP has not been accompanied by a matching reduction in the share of agriculture in  employment. About 52% of the total workforce is still employed by the farm sector which makes more than half of the Indian population dependant on agriculture for sustenance (NSS 66th Round). However,within the rural economy, the share of income from non-farm activities has also increased.

Growth Performance of Agriculture

Overall Growth

 The growth performance of the agriculture sector has been fluctuating across the plan periods (Fig 1.3). It witnessed a growth rate of 4.8 per cent during the Eighth plan period (1992–97). However, the agrarian situation saw a downturn towards the beginning of the Ninth plan period (1997–2002) and the Tenth plan period (2002–07), when the agricultural growth rate came down to 2.5 percent and 2.4 percent respectively. This crippling growth rate of 2.4 percent in agriculture as against a robust annual average overall growth rate of 7.6 per cent for the economy during the tenth plan period was clearly a cause for concern. The trend rate of growth during the period 1992-93 to 2010-11 is 2.8 percent while the average annual rate of growth in agriculture & allied sectors-GDP during the same period is 3.2 percent.

complete details :

State of Indian Agriculture




Land use in India


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Investment Tracking System

In order to address the issue of major investment projects being delayed for a variety of reasons, the Prime Minister has approved the setting up of an Investment Tracking System to ensure speedy implementation of such projects.

 Major projects will be specially tracked to take them forward on a fast track in order to provide a fresh impetus to the economy. This was in the context of delays faced by projects on multiple fronts – security clearances, environmental clearances, other clearances, land related matters, etc. While existing rules and laws have to be followed, it was widely felt that a lot of the delay is avoidable if only there is a will to resolve matters.

2. In pursuance of this, an Investment Tracking System has been put in place whereby –

(a) National Manufacturing Competitiveness Council shall track all Public Sector projects with an investment of ` 1000 crore and above. The National Manufacturing Competitiveness Council shall submit a quarterly statement of all projects monitored and any issues identified that need resolution, either systemically or individually.

(b) The Department of Financial Services shall monitor projects with an investment of  Rs 1000 crore and above in the private sector. The Department would use data available with the banking sector for this purpose. The Department shall submit a quarterly statement of all projects monitored and issues identified that need resolution, either systemically or individually.

3. Through this mechanism, projects will be periodically reviewed for any delays and specific or systemic issues will be identified for resolution. The Department of Financial Services and the National Manufacturing Competitiveness Council will submit quarterly reports on the tracking being done by them and on identified issues to the Prime Minister’s Office. Corrective action will be taken wherever found necessary.

Depreciation of Indian Rupee 2012

The Indian Rupee has depreciated significantly against the US Dollar marking a new risk for Indian economy.Till the beginning of the financial year very few had expected Rupee to depreciate with most hinting towards either appreciation or status quo in the rupee levels.Those few who had even anticipated may not have imagined the scale of depreciation with rupee touching a new low of around Rs 56 to the US Dollar.

Union Finance Minister Pranab Mukherjee has attributed the depreciation of the rupee to a “cumulative effect” of several factors impinging on the economy, both at the global and national levels.There are multiple reasons that are responsible for the fluctuation in the value of the currency.The volatility in oil prices and uncertainty in Europe has resulted in a situation where many agents were putting their surplus in the United States-considered a “safe haven” at present.

• Factors at the national level-both the fiscal deficit and the current account deficit of the country were increasing,causing the rupee to depreciate further.If we were to simply analyse the import export figures of 2011-12, then against exports of $300 bn the imports were $ 450 bn (in round figures). Thus there is a trade deficit of $150 bn. Holding on to these figures and on an estimated 235 trading days annually, it means there is a shoratge of app $ 0.64 bn ( Rs 3447 crore) per day only on import export activities. Taking other requirements into consideration, JP Morgan the financial firm has estimated that, India needs $ 340 million on each trading day in 2012, to bridge its current account deficit. Another report by the broking firm Enami Securities points out that India needs $ 800 million (nearly Rs 4300 crore) every day to bridge its trade deficit, which it rates as the highest in the world today.A decade ago, it says this figure was just $50 million.widening of the current account deficit would result in outflow of dollars from the Indian economy accentuating the depreciation in rupee.

• Because of reduction in export and increase in import, on one side the fiscal deficit has increased and on the other,current account deficit is rising. Europe was an important export destination for the country and reduction in the demand there (due to Eurozone crisis) adversely hit Indian exports.

• High Fiscal deficit means more borrowings which means demand for more dollars.More demand for dollars increases its value against rupee.

• Strengthening of Dollar - The Euro has depreciated 6.55% against the dollar in the last three months which has in turn made the dollar stronger vis-à-vis other currencies, including the rupee.With the growing demand for oil,dollar is only expected to move further upwards. Domestic oil importers have also contributed to this strengthening to meet higher oil import bills.So, FIIs have withdrawn funds from emerging markets like India and invested back in the dollar which has been strengthening.

• Withdrawal of funds by foreign institutional investors (FIIs) from domestic economy is another main reason behind rupee depreciation.After pouring hefty funds into the Indian equity market in the first three months of the year, overseas investors turned bearish in April and pulled out Rs 777 crore amid S&P lowering India’s credit outlook to negative from stable.Market experts attributed the outflow to a host of factors including government’s anti-tax avoidance rule (GAAR) proposal announced in the Budget. This has been the real dampener for several FIIs whose clients had used participatory notes to invest in the Indian stock market. The sentiment was further soured by ratings agency S&P’s move to lower India’s outlook to negative from stable, citing slow progress on its fiscal situation and deteriorating economic situation, experts added.In fact after S&P’s move, FIIs have withdrawn nearly Rs 1,300 crore from the stock market in the last three trading sessions.

• Lack of reforms is one more reason for rupee depreciation. There have been very few meaningful reforms in the last few years in Indian economy. Moreover, the policies seem to be getting increasingly populist. The government wanted to reverse this perception and announced FDI in retail but had to hold back amidst huge furor from both opposition and allies. This has further made investors negative over the Indian economy.According to Moody’s, “Since the Indian government’s political capacity to implement fiscal and structural reform is weak, depreciation is a market response".Without new reforms and innovation in the fiscal policy India is not an attractive destination for the FIIs and FDIs . 

      All these reasons together have led to sharp depreciation of the rupee.