Functions of Specific Body Systems

The human body is composed of interactive systems. There are specific functions for each of the organs in the systems, but they cannot operate by themselves.

Respiratory System - uses lungs, nasal passages, bronchi, pharynx, trachea, diaphragm, bronchial tubes - for intake of oxygen and removal of carbon dioxide from body.

Nervous System - depends on spinal cord, brain, nerves, skin, eyes, ears, tongue, nose - to control of body activities and the reaction to stimuli.

Digestive System - includes stomach, liver, teeth, tongue, pancreas, intestine, esophagus - for break down of food and absorption for use as energy.

Excretory System - comprises of  kidneys, bladder, ureters,large intestine, skin -  controls water and salt balance,The excretory system is responsible for removing wastes produced by the body. These wastes must be removed, or excreted, in order for the body to remain healthy. The human excretory system includes the skin, the kidneys, the large intestines and the liver. Each of these organs helps the body to excrete or eliminate waste that the body takes in when it eats or drinks something, or that the body produces during metabolic or life functions.

Endocrine System - includes pituitary gland, adrenal gland, thyroid gland, gonads - responsible for production of hormones and body regulation.

Skeletal and muscular System - includes bones, muscles - responsible for protection and movement.

Circulatory System - comprises of blood, blood vessels, heart, lymph - involves in transport of nutrients, metabolic wastes, water, salts, and disease fighting cells(WBCs).

Integumentary System - skin - protection of body from injury and bacteria, maintenance of tissue moisture, holds receptors for stimuli response, body heat regulation.

Immune System -(includes many types of protein, cells, organs, tissues)- Lymphocytes - T cells and B cells,Phagocytes,granulocytes,macrophages,dendritic cells.

Reproductive System - The major organs of the reproductive system includes, the external genitalia (penis and vulva) as well as a number of internal organs including the gamete producing gonads (testicles and ovaries).

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Brain 

Respiration

Birth

The Body Sentinals     

                                          

The Lymphatic System 

                                          

The Digestive System 

                                          

The Skin 

Harmones 

Vaccination 

Polygenic Inheritance

"A single characteristic that is controlled by two or more genes"



What is Polygenic inheritance ?


Polygenic inheritance, also known as quantitative or multifactorial inheritance, refers to inheritance of a phenotypic characteristic (trait) that is attributable to two or more genes . Those characters or traits which show continuous phenotypic variation are found to exhibit quantitative differences (in terms of number of genes).

Examples of Polygenic inheritance

Height,skin colour,hair and eye colour ,intelligence,etc. are the examples of polygenic inheritance .These characters are determined by more than one gene.

Characteristics of Polygenic inheritance :

• In polygenic inheritance  each gene  has a certain amount of effect and more the number of dominant genes the more is the degree of expression of the character.
• The effect of each contributing gene is additive or cumulative unlike in case of Mendelian inheritance where only the dominant 'gene' expresses itself and determines the trait. 
• There is no dominance involved (which means one gene will not override the influence of the other gene)

Understanding Polygenic Inheritance with one example

Human skin colour : Human skin colour is a good example of polygenic inheritance. Lets assume that two genes determine the skin colour of an individual(AABB from father and aabb from mother -- means a very dark father and very fair mother).The 'dominant' alleles (A, B) control dark pigmentation in the skin, which means these alleles contribute increased amount of melanin .The 'recessive' alleles of the two genes (a, b) control light pigmentation in the skin, which means lower amounts of melanin are present.

Note: An individual inherits two alleles for each gene, one from each parent. If the two alleles are the same, the individual is homozygous for that gene( ex: AA or aa). If the alleles are different, the individual is heterozygous (ex:Aa or Bb). 

A genotype with all the 'dominant' genes (AABB) has the maximum amount of melanin and so produces very dark skin. A genotype with all 'recessive' lower case genes (aabb) has the lowest amount of melanin and produces very light skin.

Example -- AABB × aabb 

Male (AABB) contributes AB gametes to the offspring and the female (aabb) contributes ab gametes to the offspring .So the child will inherit AaBb genes from the parents and the skin colour will be moderate with two dominant alleles and two recessive alleles.


  AaBb   ×  AaBb


If the male with AaBb genes mate with the female with same AaBb genotype then,the possible gametes from the male are (AB or Ab or aB or ab).Similarly the possible gametes from the female are (AB or Ab or aB or ab) since both the male and female are of same skin colour .

For any character in an offspring the father and mother contributes equal number of genes/alleles.In this case, assume that the alleles from the female gamete are on LHS and alleles from male gamete are on RHS.If father contributes two dominant alleles (AB) from his genes and mother also contributes two dominant alleles(AB) then the offspring will have all dominant genes (AABB).The more the number of dominant genes the darker will be the child.If the recessive genes are more in number (ex:aabb) then the child will be fair.So according to this example we can understand that the child born to a moderate coloured male and female (with genotype AaBb) can be very dark(4) or dark(3) or moderate(2) or light coloured(1) or very fair(0). The ratio for the same is 1:4:6:4:1

Census of India (2011)

The census 2011 has many firsts to its credit. Foremost among them is the creation of a National Population Register, a database of all ‘residents’ (as opposed to citizens) above the age of 15 years. The NPR will be a biometric database that will include photographs, fingerprints and iris prints apart from relevant demographic information. Built at an expenditure of Rs. 3,539.24 crore, the NPR is also an initiative yet to undertaken elsewhere in the world.

In other firsts, citizens’ access to new technologies like mobiles, computers and internet will also be recorded as part of the census. Technology will also be heavily relied upon to make the information collection process more efficient. For instance, GIS technology will be used to update population maps. The census has also found its way to Facebook and Twitter, where regular updates and important information will be provided routinely.

The 2011 census has detailed questions on disability, an attempt to recognise multiple types of disorders, apart from simply recording overall numbers.

Slogan of Census 2011 is “Our Census, Our Future"


New Features of Census 2011

Fresh Categories  :

The following fresh categories have been incorporated for comprehensive and better data:

1. Gender: New category "Other" introduced in addition to Male and Female.
2. Date of Birth question introduced along with Age.
3. Current Marital Status: Separate codes Assigned for Separated and Divorced.
4. New filter Question on SC/ST Introduced - "Is this person SC/ST?"
5. Disability: Household Schedule of Census 2011 attempts to collect information on eight types of disabilities as against five included in the Household Schedule of Census of India 2001. The information is being collected on disabilities namely, disability 'In Seeing', 'In Hearing', 'In Speech', 'In Movement', 'Mental retardation', 'Mental Illness', 'Any Other' and 'Multiple Disability'.
6. Literacy Status for "Other" sex added in addition to existing Male and Female.
7. New Codes under Status of Attendance in Educational Institutions introduced for Not Attending viz., (i) Attended before and (ii) Never attended.
8. Work: Marginal workers have been classified into two categories viz., (i) worked for 3 months or more but less than 6 months (ii) worked for less than 3 months. The definition of 'Main worker' remains the same.
9. A separate code-5 has been included under Non-economic activity for renters.
10. Migration - Provision to specify the present name of the Village/Town of the Birth Place as well as the Place of Last Residence introduced.
11. Name of the Institutional Household is also being recorded.

   12. Census in Schools : Census 2011 has taken initiatives to sensitise school students about census operations. The Census Organization is implementing "Census in School' programme across the  country. This is specifically designed for the active participation of children in ensuring authenticity of census data of their families.The programme covers about 60 to 80 schools in each of the 640 Districts  in the country.

Census 2011 has taken initiatives to sensitise school students about census operations. The Census Organization is implementing "Census in School' programme across the country. This is specifically designed  for the active participation of children in ensuring authenticity of census data of their families.
The programme covers about 60 to 80 schools in each of the 640 Districts in the country.
                           
  13. The mascot of an enumerator has been created for Census 2011 to make the process more people-  friendly. The mascot helps people relate with the Census process and elucidates the key role of enumerators in the process.          

Census 2011 covered 35 States/Union Territories, 640 districts, 5,924 sub-districts, 7,935 Towns and 6,40,867 Villages. In Census 2001, the corresponding figures were 593 Districts, 5,463 sub-Districts, 5,161 Towns and 6,38,588 Villages. There is an increase of 47 Districts, 461 Sub Districts, 2774 Towns (242 Statutory and 2532 Census Towns) and 2279 Villages in Census 2011 as compared to Census 2001.

 The growth rate of population for India in the last decade was 17.64%. The growth rate of population in rural and urban areas was 12.18% and 31.80% respectively. Bihar (23.90%) exhibited the highest decadal growth rate in rural population.

 India’s population in 1901 was about 238.4 million, which has increased by more than four times in 110 years to reach a population of 1,210 million in 2011.

The population of the country as per the provisional figures of Census 2011 is 1210.19 million of which 623.7 million (51.54%) are males and 586.46 million (48.46%) are females. The provisional figures of Census 2011 were released in New Delhi on Thursday by Union home secretary Shri G.K.Pillai and RGI Shri C Chandramouli.

The major highlights of the Census 2011 (Provisional figures) are as under:

*The population of India has increased by more than 181 million during the decade 2001-2011.

*Percentage growth in 2001-2011 is 17.64; males 17.19 and females 18.12.

*2001-2011 is the first decade (with the exception of 1911-1921) which has actually added lesser population compared to the previous decade.

*Uttar Pradesh (199.5 million) is the most populous State in the country followed by Maharashtra with 112 million.

*The percentage decadal growth rates of the six most populous States have declined during 2001-2011 compared to 1991-2001:

-Uttar Pradesh (25.85% to 20.09%)

-Maharashtra (22.73% to 15.99%)

-Bihar (28.62% to 25.07%)

-West Bengal (17.77 % to 13.93%)

-Andhra Pradesh (14.59% to 11.10%)

-Madhya Pradesh (24.26% to 20.30%)

*During 2001-2011, as many as 25 States/UTs with a share of about 85% of the country's population registered an annual growth rate of less than 2% as compared to, 15 States/UTs with a share of about 42% during the period 1991-2001.

*15 States/UTs have grown by less than 1.5 per cent per annum during 2001-2011, while the number of such States/UTs was only 4 during the previous decade.

*The total number of children in the age-group 0-6 is 158.8 million (-5 million since 2001)

*Twenty States and Union Territories now have over one million children in the age group 0-6 years. On the other extreme, there are five States and Union Territories in the country that are yet to reach the one hundred thousand mark.

*Uttar Pradesh (29.7 million), Bihar (18.6 million), Maharashtra (12.8 million), Madhya Pradesh (10.5 million) and Rajasthan (10.5 million) constitute 52% children in the age group of 0-6 years.

*Population (0-6 years) 2001-2011 registered minus (-)3.08 percent growth with minus (-)2.42 for males and -3.80 for females.

*The proportion of Child Population in the age group of 0-6 years to total population is 13.1 percent while the corresponding figure in 2001 was 15.9 percent. The decline has been to the extent of 2.8 points.

*Overall sex ratio at the national level has increased by 7 points to reach 940 at Census 2011 as against 933 in Census 2001. This is the highest sex ratio recorded since Census 1971 and a shade lower than 1961. Increase in sex ratio is observed in 29 States/UTs.

*Three major States (J&K, Bihar & Gujarat) have shown decline in sex ratio as compared to Census 2001.

*Kerala with 1084 has the highest sex ratio followed by Puducherry with 1038, Daman & Diu has the lowest sex ratio of 618.

*Child sex ratio (0-6 years) is 914. Increasing trend in the child sex ratio (0-6) seen in Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Mizoram and A&N Islands. In all remaining 27 States/UTs, the child sex ratio show decline over Census 2001.

*Mizoram has the highest child sex ratio (0-6 years) of 971 followed by Meghalaya with 970. Haryana is at the bottom with ratio of 830 followed by Punjab with 846.

*Literacy rate has gone up from 64.83 per cent in 2001 to 74.04 per cent in 2011 showing an increase of 9.21 percentage points.

*Percentage growth in literacy during 2001-2011 is 38.82; males : 31.98% & females : 49.10%.

 *Literates constitute 74 per cent of the total population aged seven and above and illiterates form 26 percent.

Links 


Introduction (Census of India)


Size,Growth Rate and Distribution of Population 


Size ,Growth Rate and Distribution of Child Population ( 0 - 6 years age group)


Density of Population 


Gender Composition of the Population 


State of Literacy 

Modernization and Westernization

People most of the times tend to believe modernization and westernization as synonymous of each other. But in reality they are not so. Both of the process are totally different and play a difference role in people live respectively. In the previous one the society tries to get betterment and advancement by the utilization of its own resources, opportunities and manpower. This process makes the society self-sufficient, healthy and confident.  Modernization is not a simple single wave movement, its processes that have been going on for past three to four centuries and even before that previous two centuries were spent in preparation of society for modernization. Genesis of modernization was in deep dissatisfaction with institutionalization of backwardness and blind beliefs in society during dark ages in Europe. That dissatisfaction was reflected during renaissance period (15th and 16th century) when emphasis on classical art and science set the foundation for Enlightenment. Then with Age of Enlightenment in next century emphasis on education, culture, reason set the foundations for Epoch of Modernization which is still in operation.

By modernization we simply mean "current" (from Latin root "modernus"), which means a break from past, (then meant a break from roman past to Christian present when roman emperor Constantine accepted Christianity as state religion) however in social terms it means a cultural, political and scientific movement which brought in profound changes like individual consciousness, idea of nation state, acceptance of change, industrial revolution, rejection of normative and acceptance of actual.

In political arena first modern ideas were promulgated by Niccolò Machiavelli, when he separated ethics from statecraft. In arena of music it's considered to begin with Rossini, Beethoven and Bach as they mathematically structured their symphonies to produce beautiful music from equations. Similarly in paintings it's considered to begin with Jacques David Louis of France and later defined by Van Gogh's portrayal of dark side of human life i.e. portraying life as it is instead of portraying normative beauty and romance.

However it's the social aspects of modernity that we are most concerned with; which are defined by three pillars of Reason, Individuality and Progress. In case of India, modernity is considered to begin with introduction of western education in India which brought consciousness towards backwardness of our dogmas and doctrines and culture. This in turn brought cultural reform movement, women emancipation movement by western educated intellectuals like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chander Vidya Sagar, and M. G. Ranade. Most important contribution of such movements was to secure dignity of individual's life over and above one's social life and commitments. For example 'Sati' system was one of the most exploitative system, where women's life has no other meaning than serving her husband and no existence after his death. Such disrespect for an individual life was a big blot and matter of shame for Indian society and that's why it became the first target of all the social reformers.

Similarly, apart from such movements other important contribution of modernity in our society was to introduce culture of reason and scientific inquiry instead of belief in superstition. This movement is still in operation and has not been completely successful yet. But with Universalization of education and spread of scientific ideas into common man's daily life it is likely to be achieved soon.

Thus, we can say that modernization was brought to India and other non European countries by introduction of western modern education and almost all of its modern tenets were developed and pioneered in Western Europe. But that does not mean "all that is western is modern and all that is modern is western", as even western society also suffers from same problems of backwardness, male chauvinism, although in a different and complex manner. What was explicit in other societies is subtle and implicit in western society. Modern myths, urban legends, celebrity worship and cults of personality haunt western society far more than they affect other societies. Latest addition to it is cult of violence promoted by Hollywood, gun culture, violent video games in USA and Europe.

Similarly modern intellectuals in west criticize their own society for dehumanization and too much individualization; similarly they deny presence of any grand truths or mega doctrines under the present movement called post modernism which has risen as critique to western style of modernization. It is trying to inculcate fresh ideas like green development, human rights, sustainable development, compassion and embrace of new ideas from Eastern wisdom and African naturalism and animism. We can also see the changes this movement has brought in west, where people are more considerate and open to other cultures and ideas and embracing new practices like Yoga, Meditation and Mysticism.

Thus it would be sad if we under the belief that "all western is modern" are embracing even the ills of western life like too much individualism, Death metal music (which is more of an expression of frustration than creativity), drugs cult etc.

Western civilization certainly did have profound impact on us, and brought western industrial modernity to the world and it would be great if today instead of embracing the west blindly we can synthesize the west and east picking up best of both and then fusing it to create a new universal culture and expression. We must strive for excellence like ancient Greeks, Romans and Indians instead of accepting mediocrity in name of acceptance of self and actual which has became the common practice in modern times. People search the books by best seller tag, music by chartbuster tag and art by price tag; whereby none of these characteristics define the quality of work. Thus accepting mediocrity in name of popularity would destroy scholarship and will bring non researched facts and beliefs in people's sub-consciousness and over time will become  new doctrines and dogmas thus bringing new type of backwardness to society. That's exactly is what Hollywood and pop culture doing to west and we must be careful to avoid it. Sitting in McDonalds sipping coca-cola and eating burgers won't make anyone modern, similarly neither watching FRIENDS on star world or violent and shameless reality shows will do that. West brought modernity to itself by reviving its ancient Greco-Roman aesthetics, arts and reason. similarly we also must dig into our past and must bring alive our ancient wisdom and aesthetics to enlighten our future.