Science’s Breakthrough of the Year (2011)

Antiretroviral Therapy (ART)


The journal Science has lauded an eye-opening HIV study, known as HPTN 052, as the most important scientific breakthrough of 2011. This clinical trial demonstrated that people infected with HIV are 96% less likely to transmit the virus to their partners if they take antiretroviral drugs (ARVs).The findings end a long-standing debate over whether ARVs could provide a double benefit by treating the virus in individual patients while simultaneously cutting transmission rates. It’s now clear that ARVs can provide treatment as well as prevention when it comes to HIV, researchers agree.


The Hayabusa Mission 

After some near-disastrous technical difficulties and a stunningly successful recovery, Japan’s Hayabusa spacecraft returned to Earth with dust from the surface of a large S-type asteroid. This asteroid dust represented the first direct sampling of a planetary body in 35 years, and analysis of the grains confirmed that the most common meteorites found on Earth, known as ordinary chondrules, are born from these much larger S-type asteroids.

Click --> Chondrites



Unraveling Human Origins 

Studying the genetic code of both ancient and modern human beings, researchers discovered that many humans still carry DNA variants inherited from archaic humans, such as the mysterious Denisovans in Asia and still-unidentified ancestors in Africa. One study this year revealed how archaic humans likely shaped our modern immune systems, and an analysis of Australopithecus sediba fossils from South Africa showed that the ancient hominin possessed both primitive and Homo-like traits.


Capturing a Photosynthetic Protein 

In vivid detail, researchers in Japan have mapped the structure of the Photosystem II, or PSII, protein that plants use to split water into hydrogen and oxygen atoms. The crystal-clear image shows off the protein’s catalytic core and reveals the specific orientation of atoms within. Now, scientists have access to this catalytic structure that is essential for life on Earth—one that may also hold the key to a powerful source of clean energy.

Pristine Gas in Space

Astronomers using the Keck telescope in Hawaii to probe the faraway
universe wound up discovering two clouds of hydrogen gas that seem to have maintained their original chemistry for two billion years after the Big Bang. Other researchers identified a star that is almost completely devoid of metals, just as the universe’s earliest stars must have been, but that formed much later. The discoveries show that pockets of matter persisted unscathed amid eons of cosmic violence.

Getting to Know the Microbiome

Research into the countless microbes that dwell in the human gut demonstrated that everyone has a dominant bacterium leading the gang in their digestive tract: Bacteroides, Prevotella, or Ruminococcus. Follow-up studies revealed that one of these bacteria thrives on a high-protein diet while another prefers vegetarian fare. These findings and more helped to clarify the interplay between diet and microbes in nutrition and disease.

A Promising Malaria Vaccine

Early results of the clinical trial of a malaria vaccine, known as RTS,S, provided a shot in the arm to malaria vaccine research. The ongoing trial, which has enrolled more than 15,000 children from seven African countries, reassured malaria researchers, who are used to bitter disappointment, that discovering a malaria vaccine remains possible.

Strange Solar Systems

This year, astronomers got their first good views of several distant planetary systems and discovered that things are pretty weird out there. First, NASA’s Kepler observatory helped identify a star system with planets orbiting in ways that today’s models cannot explain. Then, researchers discovered a gas giant caught in a rare “retrograde” orbit, a planet circling a binary star system, and 10 planets that seem to be freely floating in space—all unlike anything found in our own solar system.

Designer Zeolites

Zeolites are porous minerals that are used as catalysts and molecular sieves to convert oil into gasoline, purify water, filter air, and produce laundry detergents (to name a few uses). This year, chemists really showed off their creativity by designing a range of new zeolites that are cheaper, thinner, and better equipped to process large organic molecules.

more about zeolites

Clearing Senescent Cells

Experiments revealed that clearing senescent cells, or those that have stopped dividing, from the bodies of mice can delay the onset of age-related symptoms such as cataracts and muscle weakness. Mice whose bodies were cleared of these loitering cells didn’t live longer than their untreated cage-mates—but they did seem to live better, which provided researchers with some hope that banishing senescent cells might also prolong our golden years.

Stem Cells

Stem cell is a cell whose job in the body is not yet determined (they are unspecialized).Every single cell in the body stems from this type of cell.Hence the name stem cell.Stem cells have the remarkable potential to develop into many different cell types in the body during early life and growth. In addition, in many tissues they serve as a sort of internal repair system, dividing essentially without limit to replenish other cells as long as the person or animal is still alive. When a stem cell divides, each new cell has the potential either to remain a stem cell or become another type of cell with a more specialized function, such as a muscle cell, a red blood cell, or a brain cell.

Self - renewal (ability to go through numerous cycles of cell division while maintaining undifferentiated state) and Potency (capacity to differentiate into specialized cell types)  are the unique properties of stem cells.


why are they important?

Stem cells are important for living organisms for many reasons. In the 3- to 5-day-old embryo, called a blastocyst, the inner cells give rise to the entire body of the organism, including all of the many specialized cell types and organs such as the heart, lung, skin, sperm, eggs and other tissues. In some adult tissues, such as bone marrow, muscle, and brain, discrete populations of adult stem cells generate replacements for cells that are lost through normal wear and tear, injury, or disease.

Given their unique regenerative abilities, stem cells esp. embryonic stem cells could be used to replace any part of the body damaged by accident or illness. It could lead to cures for such recalcitrant diseases as Parkinson's, Alzheimer's and diabetes. Some scientists believe the cells might eventually allow those who are paralyzed to walk again.  However, much work remains to be done in the laboratory and the clinic to understand how to use these cells for cell-based therapies to treat disease, which is also referred to as regenerative or reparative medicine.

Two broad types of mammalian stem cells are :

1.Embryonic stem cells
2.Adult stem cells

Embryonic stem cells are derived from embryos that develop from eggs that have been fertilized in vitro.Adult stem cells are undifferentiated cells, found throughout the body after embryonic development, that multiply by cell division to replenish dying cells and regenerate damaged tissues. Adult stem cells are also  known as somatic stem cells.

Similarities and differences between Embryonic and Adult stem cells


Human embryonic and adult stem cells each have advantages and disadvantages regarding potential use for cell-based regenerative therapies. Of course, adult and embryonic stem cells differ in the number and type of differentiated cells types they can become. Embryonic stem cells can become all cell types of the body because they are pluripotent. Adult stem cells are generally limited to differentiating into different cell types of their tissue of origin(multipotent stem cells). However, some evidence suggests that adult stem cell plasticity may exist, increasing the number of cell types a given adult stem cell can become.

Large numbers of embryonic stem cells can be relatively easily grown in culture, while adult stem cells are rare in mature tissues and methods for expanding their numbers in cell culture have not yet been worked out. This is an important distinction, as large numbers of cells are needed for stem cell replacement therapies.

A potential advantage of using stem cells from an adult is that the patient's own cells could be expanded in culture and then reintroduced into the patient. The use of the patient's own adult stem cells would mean that the cells would not be rejected by the immune system. This represents a significant advantage as immune rejection is a difficult problem that can only be circumvented with immunosuppressive drugs.

Embryonic stem cells from a donor introduced into a patient could cause transplant rejection. However, whether the recipient would reject donor embryonic stem cells has not been determined in human experiments.

The unique potential contribution of human embryonic stem cells to therapies is a product of both their longevity and their capacity to produce a wide range of specialised cells in the laboratory. By contrast, adult stem cells that are grown in the laboratory appear to have much shorter lifespans than embryonic stem cells. This reduces their capacity to form new cell types. Stem cells can also be obtained from aborted fetuses and umbilical cord blood, but it is not clear whether the full range of cell types that are required for treatments could eventually be generated from these sources alone.


Stem cell controversy

The stem cell controversy is the ethical debate primarily concerning the creation, treatment, and destruction of human embryos incident to research involving embryonic stem cells. The status of the human embryo and human embryonic stem cell research is a controversial issue as, with the present state of technology, the creation of a human embryonic stem cell line requires the destruction of a human embryo. Stem cell debates have motivated and reinvigorated the pro-life movement, whose members are concerned with the rights and status of the embryo as an early-aged human life.They believe that embryonic stem cell research instrumentalizes and violates the sanctity of life and is tantamount to murder.The fundamental assertion of those who oppose embryonic stem cell research is the belief that human life is inviolable, combined with the belief that human life begins when a sperm cell fertilizes an egg cell to form a single cell.Crucial to the argument is the issue of whether the embryo/foetus  is a “person”. The unborn child is not legally classified as a person, various courts also noted then that if the “personhood” of the preborn is established, then the case for the right to abortion collapses, because the foetus's right to life is then guaranteed by the constitutions.


Stem cell research in India 


Stem Cell research in India is still in its infancy.Rules in India say embryos should not be generated for the sole purpose of obtaining stem cells. Only surplus or spare embryos can be used after obtaining informed consent of both spouses. Such collection of embryos should be done only from registered Assisted Reproductive Technique (ART) clinics.Though India is seen as a potential bio-tech powerhouse, lack of regulation has made stem cell research disorganized and unsafe. Now germ line that deals with research with genetic material like ova and sperm that is passed from parents to children would not be allowed. The ethical issue is the contention that this research, which seeks to identify genetic qualities, can be used to manipulate or change the gene. Similarly, genetic engineering and transfer of human blastocysts - a hollow ball of 100 cells reached after five days of embryonic development - into a human or non-human uterus will be illegal.Research or therapy using fetal stem cells/placenta is allowed. But, pregnancy termination cannot be sought for donating fetal tissue for possible financial or therapeutic benefits.

India has put in place the National Apex Committee for Stem Cell Research and Therapy (NAC-SCRT). This 12-member committee "reviews all controversial and ethically sensitive stem cell research proposals" and "oversee, monitor and make policies on stem cell use in India".

NAC-SCRT examines the scientific, technical, ethical, legal and social issues, involving each and every human embryonic stem cell research. All institutions and investigators carrying out research on human stem cells will have to be registered with NAC-SCRT through an Institutional Committee for Stem Cell Research and Therapy (IC-SCRT).

All research studies and clinical trials will have to have prior approval of IC-SCRT for permissive research and of NAC- SCRT for restricted research. All new stem lines will be created and all established cell lines from any source, imported or created in India will also have to be registered with IC - SCRT and NAC- SCRT.

The Doha Round

The Doha Round is the latest round of trade negotiations among the WTO membership. Its aim is to achieve major reform of the international trading system through the introduction of lower trade barriers and revised trade rules in order to expand global economic growth, development, and opportunity.The Round was launched in Doha, Qatar, in November 2001, at the WTO’s Fourth WTO Ministerial Conference

As of 2008, talks have stalled over a divide on major issues, such as agriculture, industrial tariffs and non-tariff barriers, services, and trade remedies.The most significant differences are between developed nations led by the European Union (EU), the United States (USA), and Japan and the major developing countries led and represented mainly by Brazil, China, India, South Korea, and South Africa. There is also considerable contention against and between the EU and the USA over their maintenance of agricultural subsidies—seen to operate effectively as trade barriers.

The negotiations focus on the following areas:

Agriculture


Industrial goods market access


Services


Trade facilitation


WTO rules (i.e., trade remedies, fish subsidies, and regional trade agreements)


Development

Issues

Agriculture

Agriculture has become the most important and controversial issue. Agriculture is particularly important for developing countries, because around 75% of the population in developing countries live in rural areas, and the vast majority are dependent on agriculture for their livelihoods. The first proposal in Qatar, in 2001, called for the end agreement to commit to substantial improvements in market access; reductions (and ultimate elimination) of all forms of export subsidies; and substantial reductions in trade-distorting support.

The dispute over agriculture hinges on the active role the United States and the EU take to support their agricultural sectors with subsidies and tariffs. Last fall, the United States offered to cut its agricultural subsidies by an average of more than 50 percent, but conditioned the offer on major market-access proposals from the EU and G-20 states. The EU has offered to cut its tariffs by an average of 40 percent, but it also wants to identify up to 160 of its agricultural products as “sensitive” and preserve tariff protections for them. The Economist says 17 and 54 are the two “magic numbers” to meet if renewed talks this spring are to succeed: the U.S. will need to limit its farm subsidies to $17 billion (its lowest offer thus far is $22 billion), and EU countries must make cuts in their agricultural tariffs in the vicinity of 54 percent. The EU and United States are calling on developing nations like India and Brazil to improve their offer to open up their markets to industrial goods. But an open embrace from the developing world is highly unlikely if the United States refuses to give up its significant farm subsidies.

Access to patented medicines

A major topic at the Doha ministerial regarded the WTO Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS). The issue involves the balance of interests between the pharmaceutical companies in developed countries that held patents on medicines and the public health needs in developing countries. Before the Doha meeting, the United States claimed that the current language in TRIPS was flexible enough to address health emergencies, but other countries insisted on new language.

Special and differential treatment

The WTO Agreements contain special provisions which give developing countries special rights and which give developed countries the possibility to treat developing countries more favorably than other WTO Members. 

The special provisions include:

• longer time periods for implementing Agreements and commitments,

• measures to increase trading opportunities for these countries,

• provisions requiring all WTO members to safeguard the trade interests of developing countries,

• support to help developing countries build the infrastructure for WTO work, handle disputes, and implement technical standards, and

• provisions related to Least-Developed country (LDC) Members.

The negotiations have been split along a developing-country/developed-country divide. Developing countries wanted to negotiate on changes to S&D provisions, keep proposals together in the Committee on Trade and Development, and set shorter deadlines. Developed countries wanted to study S&D provisions, send some proposals to negotiating groups, and leave deadlines open. Developing countries claimed that the developed countries were not negotiating in good faith, while developed countries argued that the developing countries were unreasonable in their proposals. 

Implementation issues

Developing countries claim that they have had problems with the implementation of the agreements reached in the earlier Uruguay Round because of limited capacity or lack of technical assistance. They also claim that they have not realized certain benefits that they expected from the Round, such as increased access for their textiles and apparel in developed-country markets.

Why is the Doha Round of Trade Talks So Important?

 The Doha round of trade talks would have reduced subsidies for developed countries’ agricultural industries, thus allowing developing countries to export a product that they are already good at producing - food. In return, the developing countries would open up their market to services, particularly banking, which would provide new markets to the developed countries service industries(developed countries want to increase their access to non-agricultural manufacturing and service sectors in robust developing countries like China, India, and Brazil.), and help modernize these markets for the developing countries. But the agribusiness lobbies in the U.S. and Europe put political pressure on their legislatures, and effectively ended this round of negotiations. The result has been an increase of bilateral agreements.

What happens if Doha fails?

It can pose problems to businesses worried about a “spaghetti bowl” [when multiple bilateral agreements overlap, causing complex and un-integrated regulatory requirements].Some people opine that the Doha round's failure would be a setback to global poverty-reduction efforts such as the UN Millennium Development goals.

What is the Higgs boson?

 The Higgs Boson is a hypothetical massive elementary particle that is predicted to exist by the Standard Model (SM) of particle physics, the Higgs boson is crucial to understanding the origin of mass. Shortly after the big bang, it is thought that many particles had no mass, but became heavy later on thanks to the Higgs field. Any particles that interact with this field are given mass. The Higgs boson is the signature particle of the field. Its existence is postulated as a means of resolving inconsistencies in the Standard Model. Experiments attempting to find the particle are currently being performed using the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN.

What exactly is the Higgs field?

A theoretical, invisible energy field that stretches throughout the universe. It clings to fundamental particles wherever they are, dragging on them and making them heavy. Some particles find the field more "sticky" than others. Particles of light – photons – are oblivious to it. Other particles have to wade through it like an elephant in tar. So, in theory, particles can weigh nothing, but as soon as the field switched on shortly after the big bang, they got their mass.

Why do people call it the 'god particle'?

Its theistic nickname was coined by Nobel prizewinning physicist Leon Lederman, but Higgs himself is no fan of the label. "I find it embarrassing because, though I'm not a believer myself, I think it is the kind of misuse of terminology which I think might offend some people."According to Higgs, it wasn't even Lederman's choice to call it the god particle: "He wanted to refer to it as that 'goddamn particle' and his editor wouldn't let him."


What would finding the Higgs boson mean for physics?

It would vindicate the so-called Standard Model of physics which envisages that the universe is made from 12 basic building blocks called fundamental particles and governed by four fundamental forces. The existence of the Higgs boson is predicted by the Standard Model but it has yet to be found by experiments.

How was the data collected?

The data comes from smashing protons together at very high energy in the Large Hadron Collider at the European particle laboratory, CERN. The collisions recreate conditions that have not existed in the universe since just after the big bang. The LHC will generate, in a microscopic region where beams of particles collide, a concentration of energy that has never been achieved before – a concentration that mimics, in microcosm, the conditions that prevailed in the universe during the first trillionth of a second after the big bang.After each impact, giant detectors scour the subatomic wreckage looking for evidence of new physics.

Economic census

Economic census is the complete count of all entrepreneurial units located within the geographical boundaries of the country, involved in any economic activities of either agricultural (excluding crop production and plantation) or non-agricultural sector of the Economy, engaged in production and/or distribution of goods and/or services not for the sole purpose of own consumption.

The objective of the conduct of Economic Census is to provide basic information viz.number of enterprises, employment therein, number of enterprises by type of activity, by type of ownership and by type of social group for planning purposes and to provide a frame for follow-up surveys which are meant for collecting detailed information about the enterprise.

Reliable and timely database is the basic necessity for any sound and systematic planning. The efficient formulation, implementation and evaluation of any sectoral Planning Scheme depend on reliable data base, preferably defined at lower level. Lack of adequate data on the characteristics and performance of virtually entire sectors of trade and construction and the un-organised segments of other sectors had been a very serious handicap in developmental planning and estimation of National / State Income. Though a fairly adequate system of agricultural statistics has already been developed in the country but such an information system has not yet been built up for the non-agricultural sector. While statistics in respect of organized segments of the non-agricultural economy are being collected more or less regularly. It is not so in regard to its unorganized sector, although this sector assumes greater importance due to its significant contribution towards gross domestic product as also in generation of employment in developing economy. To bridge the gap by providing basic data on non-agricultural sector and also providing frame for the follow up survey on different section of the economy, a scheme of Economic Census and Surveys was launched by Central Statistical Organization, Government of India in the year 1976. Since then, the Central Statistical Organization has conducted five Economic Census in the year 1977, 1980, 1990 1998 and 2005.(Forthcoming Sixth Economics Census-2012)


The first coordinated approach to fill these vital data gaps was made by the Central Statistical Organisation (CSO), Government of India by launching a plan scheme 'Economic Census and Surveys' in 1976. The scheme envisaged organising countrywide census of all economic activities (excluding those engaged in crop production and plantation) followed by detailed sample surveys of unorganised segments of different sectors on non-agricultural economy in a phased manner during the intervening period of two successive economic censuses. The basic purpose of conducting the economic census was to prepare a frame while follow up surveys intended to collect more detailed sector specific information between two economic censuses. In view of the rapid changes that occur in the unorganised sectors of non-agricultural economy due to high mobility or morbidity of smaller units and also on account of births of new units, the scheme envisaged conducting the economic census periodically in order to update the frame from time to time.

(Contents of Economic census includes - location of the enterprise,description of economic activity,nature of operation,type of ownership,social group of the owner,power/fuel used for the economic activity,total number of persons working and dependents)

Sixth Economics Census:

The Sixth Economic Census is to be conducted in 2012.To conduct successful six economic census activity wise proposed plan are as follows:-

1. The field survey of the Sixth Economic Census would be conducted during the period of21May- 20June, 2011.

2. A steering committee under the chairmanship of chief secretary of the state has been constituted comprising related department's principal secretaries/ secretaries as a member and DES as member secretary of the committee.

3. District level monitoring committee at district level has also been constituted under the chairmanship of district collector. Other district level officers are nominated as a member and district statistical officer as member secretary of the committee.

  The Central Government plans to conduct the Sixth Economic Census as a Central Sector Plan Scheme during 2012. It will spend Rs 800 crore for the Sixth Economic Census. 

Climate Change

Climate is a broad term, but it always describes a long-term average of a system. Often 'climate' is used to mean the long-term mean state of the atmosphere, including temperature, humidity, and wind.Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years. It may be a change in average weather conditions or the distribution of events around that average (e.g., more or fewer extreme weather events). Climate change may be limited to a specific region or may occur across the whole Earth.


Climate change: How do we know?

The Earth's climate has changed throughout history. Just in the last 650,000 years there have been seven cycles of glacial advance and retreat, with the abrupt end of the last ice age about 7,000 years ago marking the beginning of the modern climate era — and of human civilization. Most of these climate changes are attributed to very small variations in Earth’s orbit that change the amount of solar energy our planet receives.

The current warming trend is of particular significance because most of it is very likely human-induced and proceeding at a rate that is unprecedented in the past 1,300 years.

Earth-orbiting satellites and other technological advances have enabled scientists to see the big picture, collecting many different types of information about our planet and its climate on a global scale. Studying these climate data collected over many years reveal the signals of a changing climate.

Certain facts about Earth's climate are not in dispute:

• The heat-trapping nature of carbon dioxide and other gases was demonstrated in the mid-19th century. Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases affects the transfer of infrared energy through the atmosphere(Greenhouse effect) . Increased levels of greenhouse gases must cause the Earth to warm in response.

• Ice cores drawn from Greenland, Antarctica, and tropical mountain glaciers show that the Earth’s climate responds to changes in solar output, in the Earth’s orbit, and in greenhouse gas levels. They also show that in the past, large changes in climate have happened very quickly, geologically-speaking: in tens of years, not in millions or even thousands.

The evidence for rapid climate change 



Sea level rise

 Global sea level rose about 17 centimeters (6.7 inches) in the last century. The rate in the last decade, however, is nearly double that of the last century.

Warming oceans

The oceans have absorbed much of this increased heat, with the top 700 meters (about 2,300 feet) of ocean showing warming of 0.302 degrees Fahrenheit since 1969.

Ocean acidification

Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the acidity of surface ocean waters has increased by about 30 percent. This increase is the result of humans emitting more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere and hence more being absorbed into the oceans. The amount of carbon dioxide absorbed by the upper layer of the oceans is increasing by about 2 billion tons per year.

Global temperature rise


 All three major global surface temperature reconstructions show that Earth has warmed since 1880.  Most of this warming has occurred since the 1970s, with the 20 warmest years having occurred since 1981 and with all 10 of the warmest years occurring in the past 12 years.  Even though the 2000s witnessed a solar output decline resulting in an unusually deep solar minimum in 2007-2009, surface temperatures continue to increase. 

Shrinking ice sheets

The Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets have decreased in mass. Data from NASA's Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment show Greenland lost 150 to 250 cubic kilometers (36 to 60 cubic miles) of ice per year between 2002 and 2006, while Antarctica lost about 152 cubic kilometers (36 cubic miles) of ice between 2002 and 2005.

Declining Arctic sea ice

Both the extent and thickness of Arctic sea ice has declined rapidly over the last several decades.

Glacial retreat

Glaciers are retreating almost everywhere around the world — including in the Alps, Himalayas, Andes, Rockies, Alaska and Africa.

Extreme events


Intense extratropical cyclones are often associated with extreme weather, particularly with severe windstorms. Significant increases in the number or strength of intense extratropical cyclone systems have been documented in a number of studies.In a warmer future climate, most Atmosphere-Ocean General Circulation Models project increased summer dryness and winter wetness in most parts of the northern middle and high latitudes. Summer dryness indicates a greater risk of drought. Along with the risk of drying, there is an increased chance of intense precipitation and flooding due to the greater water-holding capacity of a warmer atmosphere. This has already been observed and is projected to continue because in a warmer world, precipitation tends to be concentrated into more intense events, with longer periods of little precipitation in between. Therefore, intense and heavy downpours would be interspersed with longer relatively dry periods. Another aspect of these projected changes is that wet extremes are projected to become more severe in many areas where mean precipitation is expected to increase, and dry extremes are projected to become more severe in areas where mean precipitation is projected to decrease.

India - Biofuel

Breathing New Fire

Self sufficiency in energy requirement is critical to the success of any growing economy. With increasing energy consumption, dependence on fossil fuels will necessarily have to be reduced. Being the fifth largest energy consumer, India imported nearly 70% of its crude oil requirement (90 million tonnes) during 2003-04. Estimates indicate that this figure would rise to 95% by 2030.

India has rich biomass resources which can be converted into renewable energy. The Planning Commission, Govt. of India, has launched an ambitious National Mission on Biodiesel to be implemented by a number of government agencies and coordinated by the Ministry of Rural Development. The Mission focuses on the cultivation of the physic nut, Jatropha curcas, a shrubby plant of the castor family. The seed contains 30-40% oil and can be mixed with diesel after trans-esterification. Initially Jatropha cultivation will be demonstrated on 0.4 m ha of wasteland area across the country. The entire cost economics is dependant on the productivity, quality and performance of the raw material. The Government is also discussing a National Biofuel Policy.

DBT has been entrusted through a micro-mission with the task of developing technologies that convert fiber, starch and sugar from woody plants and agricultural wastes into useful biofuel products. The thrust is on developing ethanol using lignocellulosic waste as raw material, identifying recombinant microbial stains for enhanced ethanol recovery, producing high quality raw material for biodiesel production and developing the enzymatic trans-esterfication process for more efficient conversion of oil to biodiesel. For the first time, a systematic scientific survey, characterization and collection of superior accessions of J.curcas from across the country has been taken up. More than 1500 accessions have been collected and characterized. Nurseries have been established at 12 locations for providing quality planting material to the National Mission. Nearly 0.8 million quality plantlets have been planted over an area of 300ha. A special focus is being given to crop improvement and on genes involved in oil biosynthesis. Other 'petro-crops' being investigated include Karanja (Pongamia pinnata), toothbrush tree (Salvadora persica) and Mahua (Madhuca indica)

With continued policy support and vigorous technology, biofuels could very soon be breathing new fire.


National Policy on Biofuels : 


http://www.mnre.gov.in/policy/biofuel-policy.pdf



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel_in_India

Draft Approach Paper for the Twelfth Five Year Plan (2012-17) and Strategy Challenges

Approach Paper 


Planning commission of India Appraoch Paper (12th - 2012)



Strategy Challenges 

• Enhancing the Capacity for Growth

• Enhancing Skills and Faster Generation of Employment

• Managing the Environment

• Markets for Efficiency and Inclusion      (Open, integrated, and well-regulated markets for land, labor, and capital and for goods and services are essential for growth, inclusion, and sustainability. We have many sectors were markets are non-existent or incomplete, especially those which are dominated by public provisioning. How do we create or improve markets in all sectors?)

• Decentralisation, Empowerment and Information     (Greater and more informed participation of all citizens in decision-making, enforcing accountability, exercising their rights and entitlements; and determining the course of their lives is central to faster growth, inclusion, and sustainability. How can we best promote the capabilities of all Indians, especially the most disadvantaged, to achieve this end?)

• Technology and Innovation

• Securing the Energy Future for India

• Accelerated Development of Transport Infrastructure

• Rural Transformation and Sustained Growth of Agriculture    (Rural India suffers from poor infrastructure and inadequate amenities. Low agricultural growth perpetuates food and nutritional insecurities, which also reduces rural incomes. How can we encourage and support our villages in improving their living and livelihood conditions in innovative ways?)

• Managing Urbanization

• Improved Access to Quality Education   (Educational and training facilities have been increasing rapidly. However, access, affordability, and quality remain serious concerns. Employability is also an issue. How can we improve the quality and the utility of our education, while ensuring equity and affordability? )

• Better Preventive and Curative Health Care   (India's health indicators are not improving as fast as other socio-economic indicators. Good healthcare is perceived to be either unavailable or unaffordable. How can we improve healthcare conditions, both curative and preventive, especially relating to women and children?)

 http://12thplan.gov.in/displayforum_list.php

Anthropological approaches to the study of religion (evolutionary, psychological and functional)

Anthropologists proposed various theories to explain the origin of religions.Broadly they can be classified into three types....
1.The Evolutionary Theories --E.B. Taylor and James Frazer are two of the earliest researchers who tried to develop theories of the nature of religion and its origin.Taylor defined religion as belief in supernatural beings and stated that this belief originated as explanations to the world. According to Taylor - animism was the earliest religious beliefs of primitive groups, next stage is polytheism, then monotheism .He explained this in theory of unilineal evolution of spirituality,he said it could be compared to material advancement of social groups.Frazer theorized that imitative magic and contagious magic precedes religion.
Also read :
Evolutionary origin of Religions

2.The Functional Theories --Emile Durkheim- believed that religion is central to the reproduction and maintenance of social order in societies.The necessity made the people to create the religion. He believes that the major function of religion is to socialise societies members .Durkheim held the view that the function of religion is group cohesion often performed by collectively attended rituals. He asserted that these group meeting provided a special kind of energy, which he called effervescence, that made group members lose their individuality and to feel united with the gods and thus with the group.Durkheim's approach gave rise to functionalist school in sociology and anthropology. Malinowski -saw religion, in particular rites of passage, as functioning to appease the stress caused by life crises such as death marriage, birth etc.-things that could cause social upheaval.Karl Marx states that an economically-deprived man is kept from revolting for equality by his beliefs in religion which passify him in hoping for a better life in the world to come. He said: "Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, and the soul of soulless conditions. It is the opium of the people. The abolition of religion as the illusory happiness of the people is the demand for their real happiness." The religion functions to fulfill the ambitions of the higher class of the society.

3.The Psychological Theories--theory that religion is the result of psychological mechanisms shared by all normal human minds. According to this theory there are similarities in the religious ideas of cultures that are widely separated from one another geographically or in time.These resemblances are explained by the fact that all human minds and brains function in much the same way.Another idea that has attracted a lot of attention in recent years arises from the concept of memes first introduced by Richard Dawkins ( A meme is a unit of cultural ideas, symbols or practices, which can be transmitted from one mind to another through writing, speech, gestures, rituals or other imitable phenomena.). Memes spread through the behaviors that they generate in their hosts. Sigmund Freud theorized that a deep subconscious psychological conflict within social groups was responsible for early development of religion and served to strengthen the group. He believed that religion is an attempt to grapple with various psychological complexes.

In addition to these,there are faith based theories:there are probably hundreds of different religious creation stories which describe how humans, other species of life, the Earth, and the rest of the universe came to be. Many of these stories describe the origins of their particular religion. It was typically based on revelation from one or more deities -- mainly gods and goddesses.

Strategy for Mains(General Studies)

The objective of the Civil Services (Main) Examination is for the selection of candidates for the various services and posts.

To achieve this U.P.S.C. has mentioned that the main examination is intended to assess the overall intellectual traits and depth of understanding of candidates rather than merely the range of their information and memory.

So, to evaluate candidate’s this treat, the main examination will consist of a written examination. And the written examination will consist of 9 papers, which carries total 2000 marks. In this General Studies papers carries 300 marks each, Paper IV and Paper V total 600 marks.

For the General Studies Papers, U.P.S.C. has clearly mention it’s level and range, It stated that the nature and standard of questions in the General Studies papers will be such that a well educated person will be able to answer them without any specialized study.

The questions will be such as to test a candidate’s general awareness of a variety of subjects, which will have relevance for a career in Civil Services.
The question are likely to test the candidates basic understanding of all relevant issues and ability to analyze and take a view of conflicting Socio-economic goals, objectives and demands.

Therefore the candidate must give relevant, meaningful and succinct answers.

After understanding the overall aspects of General Studies Paper, now you may ask why candidates score very low in this section? And what should be its solution?
Basically there are two reasons for this:-

Ist reason is, not completing all questions in the actual examination. There may be various reason for this but the most important one is, not having enough information, or knowledge about the question.

IInd reason is that, If you have the knowledge, then you are lacking the approach. That you may have faulty approach or wrong approach.

So, to overcome from the first problem, candidate must widen their knowledge base, you should be aware of right sources of study materials. Since there are diverse topics which you have to prepare. You should have crystal clear conception about the issues or topic which you read. In this context analytical grasp of topic is must.

Here one must also give more emphasise to these following topics:-

Indian Constitution
Current Affairs
Science & Technology Specially Environment & Ecology
Economy

Ist Problem: Regarding awareness of study materials for G.S. :

Now let me discuss about the sources or references from where you can cover your General Studies (Main) paper. For this you must through with the Syllabus as mentioned by U.P.S.C. and their references which you can refer are as follows:-

1. History of Modern India and Indian Culture: The History of Modern India will cover history of the Country from about the middle of nineteenth century and would also include questions on important personalities who shaped the freedom movement and social reforms. The part relating to Indian culture will cover all aspects of Indian culture from the ancient to modern times as well as principal features of literature, arts and architecture.

References:

Modern Indian History by Spectrum
Indian Culture by Spectrum or Wizard
Indian Culture Chapter of Indian Year Book

2. Geography of India: In this part, questions will be on the physical, economic and social geography of India.

References:

Class XI & XII Books of N.C.E.R.T. or Wizard.
For Economic and Social Geography of India. Selected chapter from Indian Year Book & Economic Survey. They are:

Land and the People
Energy
Industry
Transport
Water Resource

Economic Survey

Industry

Energy Infrastructure and Communications

3. Constitution of India and Indian Polity: This part will include questions on the Constitution of India as well as all constitutional, legal, administrative and other issues emerging from the politico-administrative system prevalent in the country.

References:

For Constitutional Part – M. Laxmikant
Class XI & XII N.C.E.R.T. Books
Editorial and Important articles of The Hindu, articles of Yojana. Important articles of Press Information Bureau

4. Current National Issues and Topics of Social Relevance : This part is intended to test the candidate’s awareness of current national issues and topics of social relevance in present-day India, such as the following:

The Indian economy and issues relating to planning, mobilization of resources, growth, development and employment.
Issues arising from the social and economic exclusion of large sections from the benefits of development.
Other issues relating to the development and management of human resource.
Health issues including the management of Public Health, Health education and ethical concerns regarding health-care, medical research and pharmaceuticals.
Law enforcement, internal security and related issues such as the preservation of communal harmony.
Issues relating to good governance and accountability to the citizens including the maintenance of human rights, and of probity in public life.
Environmental issues, ecological preservation, conservation of natural resources and national heritage.

References:

1. Following chapters of Indian Year Book:

Agriculture
Education
Food and Civil Supplies
Health and Family Welfare
Planning
Rural and Urban Development
Welfare
Youth Affairs and Sports

Economic Survey:

Human Development Equity and Environment

2. Editorial and Important articles of The Hindu

3. Important articles of Press Information Bureau

4. Important articles of Yojana

5. Magazine like Civil Service Times or Chronicle

5. India and the World : This part will include questions to test candidate’s awareness of India’s relationship with the world in various spheres such as the following:-

Foreign Affairs with special emphasis on India’s relations with neighboring countries and in the region.
Security and defense related matters.
Nuclear policy, issues, and conflicts.
The Indian Diaspora and its contribution to India and the world.

References:

For Historical background one can refer – V. N. Kanna
For Current Affairs: The Hindu (News, Editorials & Articles)
News from Press Information Bureau
Foreign Ministry website or refer any competition magazine like Chronicle or civil Service Times.

6. India’s Economic Interaction with the World : In this part, questions will be on economic and trade issues such as foreign trade, foreign investment; economic and diplomacy issues relating to oil, gas and energy flows; the role and functions of I.M.F., World Bank, W.T.O., WIPO etc. which influence India’s economic interaction with other countries and international institutions.

Reference:

Following chapter of India Year Book & Economic Survey:

Basic Economic data
Commerce
Finance
Corporate Affairs
Industry


Economic Survey::

State of the economy and prospects
Micro-foundations of macroeconomic development
Fiscal Development and Public Finance
Price and monetary Management
Finance Intermediation and Market
Balance of Payment
International Trade
Agriculture and food management
Industry
Service Sector

VI. The Hindu to (News, Editorials & Articles)

VII. Wikipedia to understand Various Economic concepts.

VIII. Chronicle Special Issues

7. Developments in the Field of Science & Technology, IT and space: In this part, questions will test the candidate’s awareness of the developments in the field of science and technology, information technology, space and basic ideas about computers, robotics, nanotechnology, biotechnology and related issues regarding intellectual property rights.

References:

Science & Technology by Wizard
Science reporter

Following chapter of Indian Year Book:

Communication and Information Technology
Defence
Environment
Mass Communication
S&T Development

8. International Affairs and Institutions: This part will include questions on important events in world affairs and on international institutions.

References:

The Hindu (News, Editorial & Articles)
Chronicle or Civil Services Times
International Institution by Pushpesh Pant

9. Statistical analysis, graphs and diagrams: This part will test the candidate’s ability to draw conclusions from information presented in statistical, graphical or diagrammatical form and to interpret them.

Reference:

(I). Class XI Books of N.C.E.R.T. (II). or Spectrum

So, it is evident from the above fact that, if a candidate read only – The Hindi, Yojana, Science Reporter & Some Important Articles of Press Information Bureau then he will be in a position to answer 60% of the questions in G.S. paper but you must have the conceptual clarity here one can refer Internet. Whatever terms and concepts are in news, you must know about them, because now a days U.P.S.C. is not asking any direct question.
IInd Problem: Regarding Approach:

So, in this way you can solve the first problem now let me discuss about the second problem that is approach. Right approach here means, target the question and give whatever is associated with the question to understand better let me give you an example.

Suppose you are writing regarding the powers of President. Here the right approach should be:

Introduction of President

Executive Power

Legislative Power

Judicial Power

Military Power

Diplomat Power

How Power Exercise

Discretionary Power

Extra Constitutional Power

Now, hope you have clear idea regarding approach, however there are still some points which I want to make you aware, those are:

The statement of your answer should not be general statement, all statements must be fact based and information based. In G.S. no Introduction, no Conclusion, because it is repetition.Where ever possible give Flowchart, Diagram, Figure.

By following these above simple techniques you can enhance 30-40 marks in General Studies Paper.

However the most important aspect of all this is, depend on your hard work, your dedication because without that, there is no chance to crack this exam. Just remember one thing what you do now will shape where you go forward from here.

Syllabus (Anthropology) for mains

PAPER - I:

1.1 Meaning, scope and development of Anthropology.

1.2 Relationships with other disciplines: Social Sciences, Behavioural Sciences, Life Sciences, Medical Sciences, Earth Sciences and Humanities.

1.3 Main branches of Anthropology, theirscope and relevance:
(a) Social- cultural Anthropology.
(b) Biological Anthropology.
(c) Archaeological Anthropology.
(d) Linguistic Anthropology.

1.4 Human Evolution and emergence of Man:
(a) Biological and Cultural factors in human evolution.
(b) Theories of Organic Evolution (Pre- Darwinian, Darwinian and Post-Darwinian).
(c) Synthetic theory of evolution; Brief outline of terms and concepts of evolutionary biology (Doll’s rule, Cope’s rule, Gause’s rule, parallelism, convergence, adaptive radiation, and mosaic evolution).

1.5 Characteristics of Primates; Evolutionary Trend and Primate Taxonomy; Primate Adaptations; (Arboreal and Terrestrial) Primate Taxonomy; Primate Behaviour; Tertiary and Quaternary fossil primates; Living Major Primates; Comparative Anatomy of Man and Apes; Skeletal changes due to erect posture and its implications.

1.6 Phylogenetic status, characteristics and geographical distribution of the following:
(a) Plio-pleistocene hominids in South and East Africa - Australopithecines.
(b) Homo erectus: Africa (Paranthropus), Europe (Homo erectus heidelbergensis), Asia (Homo erectus javanicus, Homo erectus pekinensis).
(c) Neanderthal Man- La-Chapelle-auxsaints (Classical type), Mt. Carmel (Progressive type).
(d) Rhodesian man.
(e) Homo sapiens — Cromagnon, Grimaldi and Chancelede.

1.7 The biological basis of life: The Cell, DNA structure and replication, Protein Synthesis, Gene, Mutation, Chromosomes, and Cell Division.

1.8 (a) Principles of Prehistoric Archaeology. Chronology: Relative and Absolute Dating methods.
(b) Cultural Evolution- Broad Outlines of Prehistoric cultures:
(i) Paleolithic
(ii) Mesolithic
(iii) Neolithic
(iv) Chalcolithic
(v) Copper-Bronze Age
(vi) Iron Age

2.1 The Nature of Culture: The concept and characteristics of culture and civilization; Ethnocentrism vis-à-vis cultural Relativism.

2.2 The Nature of Society: Concept of Society; Society and Culture; Social Institutions; Social groups; and Social stratification.

2.3 Marriage: Definition and universality; Laws of marriage (endogamy, exogamy, hypergamy, hypogamy, incest taboo); Types of marriage (monogamy, polygamy, polyandry, group marriage). Functions of marriage; Marriage regulations (preferential, prescriptive and proscriptive); Marriage payments (bride wealth and dowry).

2.4 Family: Definition and universality; Family, household and domestic groups; functions of family; Types of family (from the perspectives of structure, blood relation, marriage, residence and succession); Impact of urbanization, industrialization and feminist movements on family.

2.5 Kinship: Consanguinity and Affinity; Principles and types of descent (Unilineal, Double, Bilateral, Ambilineal); Forms of descent groups (lineage, clan, phratry, moiety and kindred); Kinship terminology (descriptive and classificatory); Descent, Filiation and Complimentary Filiation; Descent and Alliance.

3. Economic organization: Meaning, scope and relevance of economic anthropology; Formalist and Substantivist debate; Principles governing production, distribution and exchange (reciprocity, redistribution and market), in communities, subsisting on hunting and gathering, fishing, swiddening, pastoralism, horticulture, and agriculture; globalization and indigenous economic systems.

4. Political organization and Social Control: Band, tribe, chiefdom, kingdom and state; concepts of power, authority and legitimacy; social control, law and justice in simple societies.

5. Religion: Anthropological approaches to the study of religion (evolutionary, psychological and functional); monotheism and polytheism; sacred and profane; myths and rituals; forms of religion in tribal and peasant societies (animism, animatism, fetishism, naturism and totemism); religion, magic and science distinguished; magicoreligious functionaries (priest, shaman, medicine man, sorcerer and witch).

6. Anthropological theories:
(a) Classical evolutionism (Tylor, Morgan and Frazer)
(b) Historical particularism (Boas); Diffusionism (British, German and American)
(c) Functionalism (Malinowski); Structural- functionlism (Radcliffe-Brown)
(d) Structuralism (L’evi - Strauss and E. Leach)
(e) Culture and personality (Benedict, Mead, Linton, Kardiner and Cora - du Bois).
(f) Neo - evolutionism (Childe, White, Steward, Sahlins and Service)
(g) Cultural materialism (Harris)
(h) Symbolic and interpretive theories (Turner, Schneider and Geertz)
(i) Cognitive theories (Tyler, Conklin)
(j) Post- modernism in anthropology

7. Culture, language and communication: Nature, origin and characteristics of language; verbal and non-verbal communication; social context of language use.

8. Research methods in anthropology:
(a) Fieldwork tradition in anthropology
(b) Distinction between technique, method and methodology
(c) Tools of data collection: observation, interview, schedules, questionnaire, Case study, genealogy, life-history, oral history, secondary sources of information, participatory methods.
(d) Analysis, interpretation and presentation of data.

9.1 Human Genetics : Methods and Application: Methods for study of genetic principles in man-family study (pedigree analysis, twin study, foster child, co-twin method, cytogenetic method, chromosomal and karyo-type analysis), biochemical methods, immunological methods, D.N.A. technology and recombinant technologies.

9.2 Mendelian genetics in man-family study, single factor, multifactor, lethal, sublethal and polygenic inheritance in man.

9.3 Concept of genetic polymorphism and selection, Mendelian population, Hardy- Weinberg law; causes and changes which bring down frequency – mutation, isolation, migration, selection, inbreeding and genetic drift. Consanguineous and nonconsanguineous mating, genetic load, ge- 40 UPSC Employment News 19 - 25 February 2011 netic effect of consanguineous and cousin marriages.

9.4 Chromosomes and chromosomal aberrations in man, methodology.
(a) Numerical and structural aberrations (disorders).
(b) Sex chromosomal aberrations – Klinefelter (XXY), Turner (XO), Super female (XXX), intersex and other syndromic disorders.
(c) Autosomal aberrations – Down syndrome, Patau, Edward and Cri-du-chat syndromes.
(d) Genetic imprints in human disease, genetic screening, genetic counseling, human DNA profiling, gene mapping and genome study.

9.5 Race and racism, biological basis of morphological variation of non-metric and metric characters. Racial criteria, racial traits in relation to heredity and environment; biological basis of racial classification, racial differentiation and race crossing in man.

9.6 Age, sex and population variation as genetic marker- ABO, Rh blood groups, HLA Hp, transferring, Gm, blood enzymes. Physiological characteristics-Hb level, body fat, pulse rate, respiratory functions and sensory perceptions in different cultural and socio-economic groups.

9.7 Concepts and methods of Ecological Anthropology. Bio-cultural Adaptations – Genetic and Non- genetic factors. Man’s physiological responses to environmental stresses: hot desert, cold, high altitude climate.

9.8 Epidemiological Anthropology: Health and disease. Infectious and non-infectious diseases. Nutritional deficiency related diseases.

10. Concept of human growth and development: stages of growth - pre-natal, natal, infant, childhood, adolescence, maturity, senescence. - Factors affecting growth and development genetic, environmental, biochemical, nutritional, cultural and socio-economic. - Ageing and senescence. Theories and observations - biological and chronological longevity. Human physique and somatotypes. Methodologies for growth studies.

11.1 Relevance of menarche, menopause and other bioevents to fertility. Fertility patterns and differentials.

11.2 Demographic theories- biological, social and cultural.

11.3 Biological and socio-ecological factors influencing fecundity, fertility, natality and mortality.

12. Applications of Anthropology: Anthropology of sports, Nutritional anthropology, Anthropology in designing of defence and other equipments, Forensic Anthropology, Methods and principles of personal identification and reconstruction, Applied human genetics – Paternity diagnosis, genetic counseling and eugenics, DNA technology in diseases and medicine, serogenetics and cytogenetics in reproductive biology.

PAPER – II:

1.1 Evolution of the Indian Culture and Civilization — Prehistoric (Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic and Neolithic - Chalcolithic). Protohistoric (Indus Civilization): Pre- Harappan, Harappan and post- Harappan cultures. Contributions of tribal cultures to Indian civilization.

1.2 Palaeo – anthropological evidences from India with special reference to Siwaliks and Narmada basin (Ramapithecus, Sivapithecus and Narmada Man).

1.3 Ethno-archaeology in India : The concept of ethno-archaeology; Survivals and Parallels among the hunting, foraging, fishing, pastoral and peasant communities including arts and crafts producing communities.

2. Demographic profile of India — Ethnic and linguistic elements in the Indian population and their distribution. Indian population - factors influencing its structure and growth.

3.1 The structure and nature of traditional Indian social system — Varnashram, Purushartha, Karma, Rina and Rebirth.

3.2 Caste system in India- structure and characteristics, Varna and caste, Theories of origin of caste system, Dominant caste, Caste mobility, Future of caste system, Jajmani system, Tribe- caste continuum.

3.3 Sacred Complex and Nature- Man- Spirit Complex.

3.4 Impact of Buddhism, Jainism, Islam and Christianity on Indian society.

4. Emergence and growth of anthropology in India-Contributions of the 18th, 19th and early 20th Century scholar-administrators. Contributions of Indian anthropologists to tribal and caste studies.

5.1 Indian Village: Significance of village study in India; Indian village as a social system; Traditional and changing patterns of settlement and inter-caste relations; Agrarian relations in Indian villages; Impact of globalization on Indian villages.

5.2 Linguistic and religious minorities and their social, political and economic status.

5.3 Indigenous and exogenous processes of socio-cultural change in Indian society: Sanskritization, Westernization, Modernization; Inter-play of little and great traditions; Panchayati raj and social change;Media and social change.

6.1 Tribal situation in India – Bio-genetic variability, linguistic and socio-economic characteristics of tribal populations and their distribution.

6.2 Problems of the tribal Communities — land alienation, poverty, indebtedness, low literacy, poor educational facilities, unemployment, underemployment, health and nutrition.

6.3 Developmental projects and their impact on tribal displacement and problems of rehabilitation. Development of forest policy and tribals. Impact of urbanization and industrialization on tribal populations.

7.1 Problems of exploitation and deprivation of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes. Constitutional safeguards for Scheduled Tribes and Scheduled Castes.

7.2 Social change and contemporary tribal societies: Impact of modern democratic institutions, development programmes and welfare measures on tribals and weaker sections.

7.3 The concept of ethnicity; Ethnic conflicts and political developments; Unrest among tribal communities; Regionalism and demand for autonomy; Pseudo-tribalism; Social change among the tribes during colonial and post-Independent India.

8.1 Impact of Hinduism, Buddhism, Christianity, Islam and other religions on tribal societies.

8.2 Tribe and nation state — a comparative study of tribal communities in India and other countries.

9.1 History of administration of tribal areas, tribal policies, plans, programmes of tribal development and their implementation. The concept of PTGs (Primitive Tribal Groups), their distribution, special programmes for their development. Role of N.G.O.s in tribal development.

9.2 Role of anthropology in tribal and rural development.

9.3 Contributions of anthropology to the understanding of regionalism, communalism, and ethnic and political movements.

Syllabus (Geography) for Mains

PAPER - I

Principles of Geography Physical Geography:

1. Geomorphology: Factors controlling landform development; endogenetic and exogenetic forces; Origin and evolution of the earth’s crust; Fundamentals of geomagnetism; Physical conditions of the earth’s interior; Geosynclines; Continental drift; Isostasy; Plate tectonics; Recent views on mountain building; Vulcanicity; Earthquakes and Tsunamis; Concepts of geomorphic cycles and Landscape development ; Denudation chronology; Channel morphology; Erosion surfaces; Slope development ; Applied Geomorphology : Geohydrology, economic geology and environment.

2. Climatology: Temperature and pressure belts of the world; Heat budget of the earth; Atmospheric circulation; atmospheric stability and instability. Planetary and local winds; Monsoons and jet streams; Air masses and fronto genesis, Temperate and tropical cyclones; Types and distribution of precipitation; Weather and Climate; Koppen’s, Thornthwaite’s and Trewartha’s classification of world climates; Hydrological cycle; Global climatic change and role and response of man in climatic changes, Applied climatology and Urban climate.

3. Oceanography: Bottom topography of the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans; Temperature and salinity of the oceans; Heat and salt budgets, Ocean deposits; Waves, currents and tides; Marine resources: biotic, mineral and energy resources; Coral reefs, coral bleaching; sealevel changes; law of the sea and marine
pollution.

4. Biogeography: Genesis of soils; Classification and distribution of soils; Soil profile; Soil erosion, Degradation and conservation; Factors influencing world distribution of plants and animals; Problems of deforestation and conservation measures; Social forestry; agro-forestry; Wild life; Major gene pool centres.

5. Environmental Geography: Principle of ecology; Human ecological adaptations; Influence of man on ecology and environment; Global and regional ecological changes and imbalances; Ecosystem their management and conservation; Environmental degradation, management and conservation; Biodiversity and sustainable development; Environmental policy; Environmental hazards and remedial measures; Environmental education and legislation.

Human Geography:

1. Perspectives in Human Geography: Areal differentiation; regional synthesis; Dichotomy and dualism; Environmentalism; Quantitative revolution and locational
analysis; radical, behavioural, human and welfare approaches; Languages, religions and secularisation; Cultural regions of the world; Human development index.

2. Economic Geography: World economic development: measurement and problems; World resources and their distribution; Energy crisis; the limits to growth; World agriculture: typology of agricultural regions; agricultural inputs and productivity; Food and nutrition problems; Food security; famine: causes, effects and remedies; World industries: locational patterns and problems; patterns of world trade.

3. Population and Settlement Geography: Growth and distribution of world population; demographic attributes; Causes and consequences of migration; concepts of over-under-and optimum population; Population theories, world population problems and policies, Social well-being and quality of life; Population as social capital. Types and patterns of rural settlements; Environmental issues in rural settlements; Hierarchy of urban settlements; Urban morphology: Concepts of primate city and rank-size rule; Functional classification of towns; Sphere of urban influence; Rural - urban fringe; Satellite towns; Problems and remedies of urbanization; Sustainable development of cities.

4. Regional Planning: Concept of a region; Types of regions and methods of regionalisation; Growth centres and growth poles; Regional imbalances; regional development strategies; environmental issues in regional planning; Planning for sustainable development.

5. Models, Theories and Laws in Human Geography: Systems analysis in Human geography; Malthusian, Marxian and demographic transition models; Central Place theories of Christaller and Losch;Perroux and Boudeville; Von Thunen’s model of agricultural location; Weber’s model of industrial location; Ostov’s model of stages of growth. Heartland and Rimland theories; Laws of international boundaries and frontiers.

PAPER – II

GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA

1. Physical Setting: Space relationship of India with neighboring countries; Structure and relief; Drainage system and watersheds; Physiographic regions; Mechanism of Indian monsoons and rainfall patterns, Tropical cyclones and western disturbances; Floods and droughts; Climatic regions; Natural vegetation; Soil types and their distributions.

2. Resources: Land, surface and ground water, energy, minerals, biotic and marine resources; Forest and wild life resources and their conservation; Energy crisis.

3. Agriculture: Infrastructure: irrigation, seeds, fertilizers, power; Institutional factors: land holdings, land tenure and land reforms; Cropping pattern, agricultural productivity, agricultural intensity, crop combination, land capability; Agro and socialforestry; Green revolution and its socioeconomic and ecological implications; Significance of dry farming; Livestock resources and white revolution; aqua - culture; sericulture, apiculture and poultry; agricultural regionalisation; agro-climatic
zones; agro- ecological regions.

4. Industry: Evolution of industries; Locational factors of cotton, jute, textile, iron and steel, aluminium, fertilizer, paper, chemical and pharmaceutical, automobile,
cottage and agro-based industries; Industrial houses and complexes including public sector undertakings; Industrial regionalisation; New industrial policies; Multinationals and liberalization; Special Economic Zones; Tourism including eco -tourism.

5. Transport, Communication and Trade: Road, railway, waterway, airway and pipeline networks and their complementary roles in regional development; Growing importance of ports on national and foreign trade; Trade balance; Trade Policy; Export processing zones; Developments in communication and information technology and their impacts on economy and society; Indian space programme.

6. Cultural Setting: Historical Perspective of Indian Society; Racial, linguistic and ethnic diversities; religious minorities; major tribes, tribal areas and their problems; cultural regions; Growth, distribution and density of population; Demographic attributes: sex-ratio, age structure, literacy rate, work-force, dependency ratio, longevity; migration (inter-regional, intra- regional and international) and associated problems; Population problems and policies; Health indicators.

7. Settlements: Types, patterns and morphology of rural settlements; Urban developments; Morphology of Indian cities; Functional classification of Indian cities;
Conurbations and metropolitan regions; urban sprawl; Slums and associated problems; town planning; Problems of urbanization and remedies.

8. Regional Development and Planning: Experience of regional planning in India; Five Year Plans; Integrated rural development programmes; Panchayati Raj and
decentralised planning; Command area development; Watershed management; Planning for backward area, desert, drought prone, hill, tribal area development;
multi-level planning; Regional planning and development of island territories.

9. Political Aspects: Geographical basis of Indian federalism; State reorganisation; Emergence of new states; Regional consciousness and inter state issues; international boundary of India and related issues; Cross border terrorism; India’s role in world affairs; Geopolitics of South Asia and Indian Ocean realm.

10. Contemporary Issues: Ecological issues: Environmental hazards: landslides, earthquakes, Tsunamis, floods and droughts, epidemics; Issues relating to
environmental pollution; Changes in patterns of land use; Principles of environmental impact assessment and environmental management; Population explosion and food security; Environmental degradation; Deforestation, desertification and soil erosion; Problems of agrarian and industrial unrest; Regional disparities in economic development; Concept of sustainable growth and development; Environmental awareness; Linkage of rivers; Globalisation and Indian economy.